Citeva ore in urma in Olanda a fost depistat primul virus destinat sa atace smatfoanele iPhone, anuntul vine din partea companiei F-Secure, domeniul de activitate al careia este anume IT Security. Victimile numarul unu sint toti utilizatorii care acceseaza platforma online a bancii ING Direct. Infectind telefonul, el readreseaza utilizatorii la un alt site bancar asemanator, iar in timpul acesta stocheaza toata informatia secreta despre clientul real al bancii ING Direct.
In acelasi timp de mentionat este ca victime ale acestor atacuri pot fi doar (jailbroken), adica telefoanele pe care a fost deja instalat protocolul SSH, care deja are setat un nume de ultilizator implicit, precum si o parola standard – “alpine”.
Acest atac a fost depistat de catre un angajat al companiei F-Secure, care mai mentioneaza ca acest virus se comporta ca un botnet, adica in felul acesta stapinul telefonului pierde controlul asupra aparatului sau de telefon. La moment au fost deja atacate citeva sute de telefoane.
Primul tip de virus care ataca iPhone, ikee, a aparut inca la inceputul lunii noiembrie, insa acela practic nu putea sa aduca daune, el era capabil doar sa schimbe screenshoot-ul (imaginea de pe display), inlocuindul cu poza unui cintaretdin anii 80 – Rick Astley.
Conexiunea la client se facea la fel pe baza cunoasterii parolei contului SSH, ca in cazul virusului depistat astazi.
Disclaimer: this post is for those that instead of using FreeBSD’s excellent documentation maintain the bad habit of googling for things already covered in the project’s official documentation. This is more or less a copy-paste of the FreeBSD 7.2-RELEASE Announcement instructions for upgrading 7.1 to 7.2.
These are needed steps to upgrade, through the binary upgrade method, the kernel and userland utilities to 7.2-RELEASE:
1. % su 2. # freebsd-update upgrade -r 7.2-RELEASE 3. # freebsd-update install 4. # shutdown -r now 5. % su 6. # freebsd-update install 7. # shutdown -r now
On step 1 we’ve started of by becoming the superuser. Step 2 initiates the freebsd-update utility pointing the upgrade to 7.2-RELEASE, after that we proceed with the installation of the kernel on step 3.
Upon rebooting the new kernel is enabled and we move into step 6. Here we end the upgrade process by updating the userland utilities.
Incercati sa tastati in consola “netstat” si veti optine o lista imensa de informatii , chiar mai mult decat puteti da scrooll, si pt a lamuri lucrurile exista posibilitatea de a extrage numai informatia dorita din totalul informatiilor afishate de netstat De exemplu, daca se doreste numai vizualizarea conexiunilor tcp se tasteaza comanda “#netstat –tcp” care afisiaza conexiunile tcp inspre si dinspre PC. In exemplul de mai jos se poate intelege clar informatiile afishate 993 (imaps), 143 (imap), 110 (pop3), 25 (smtp), and 22 (ssh). 389 (ldap).
Nota: Pentru a acelera afishare se poate utiliza o optiune adaugatoare –numeric care va afisha numai IP-urile la care sa facut conexiunea.
% netstat –tcp –numeric Active Internet connections (w/o servers) Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State tcp 0 0 192.168.128.152:993 192.168.128.120:3853 ESTABLISHED tcp 0 0 192.168.128.152:143 192.168.128.194:3076 ESTABLISHED tcp 0 0 192.168.128.152:45771 192.168.128.34:389 TIME_WAIT tcp 0 0 192.168.128.152:110 192.168.33.123:3521 TIME_WAIT tcp 0 0 192.168.128.152:25 192.168.231.27:44221 TIME_WAIT tcp 0 256 192.168.128.152:22 192.168.128.78:47258 ESTABLISHED
I cazul in care doriti sa vedeti cu ce se mai ocupa calculatorul in lipsa voastra si anume ce porturi sunt ascultate si de cine puteti utiliza comanda cu optiunea “#netstat –tcp –listening”, la care se mai poate adauga si parametrul “–programs” care mai indica si ce proces este implicat in ascultarea si receptionare pe un anume port. In exemplul de mai jos sunt implicate urmatoarele procese pe porturile 80 (www), 443 (https), 22 (ssh), si 25 (smtp);
# sudo netstat –tcp –listening –programs Active Internet connections (only servers) Proto Recv-Q Send-Q Local Address Foreign Address State PID/Program name tcp 0 0 *:www *:* LISTEN 28826/apache2 tcp 0 0 *:ssh *:* LISTEN 26604/sshd tcp 0 0 *:smtp *:* LISTEN 6836/ tcp 0 0 *:https *:* LISTEN 28826/apache2
Nota: Utilizand optiunea adaugatoare “–all” afiseaza ambele, conexiunile si porturile ascultate. Nota: Pentru a putea utiliza comanda sudo, acest pachet trebuie sa fie instalat in systemul Dumneavoastra.
Urmatorul exemplu “#netstat –route” ne va afisha tabela de route-are. Pentru un simplu utilizator aceasta comanda nu poate fi de mare folos dar pentru un administrator de retea poate fi foarte utila daca are pe sistem mai multe placi de retea sau pe o placa de retea sa fie atribuite mai multe adrese IP.
% netstat –route Kernel IP routing table Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.0 U 0 0 0 eth0 0.0.0.0 192.168.1.1 0.0.0.0 UG 1 0 0 eth0
Ultimul exemplu netstat utilizeaza optiunea “–statistics” care afishaza statisticele de retea, folosind aceasta optiune de una singura va afisa toate statisticile IP, TCP, UDP, si ICMP, iar pt a sistematiza si organiza fluxul de informatii provenit de la aceasta optiune se pot utiliza sub otiuni ajutatoare care pot delimita anumite informatii necesari. De exemplu pentru a vizualiza statisticile output din ” –row ” combinate cu uptime se poate vizualiza genereaza masina voastra zilnic.
% netstat –statistics –raw Ip: 620516640 total packets received 0 forwarded 0 incoming packets discarded 615716262 incoming packets delivered 699594782 requests sent out 5 fragments dropped after timeout 3463529 reassemblies required 636730 packets reassembled ok 5 packet reassembles failed 310797 fragments created // ICMP statistics truncated
Nota: Pt cei care nu se impaca foarte bine cu consola se pot folosi abrevieri ale optiunilor prezentate mai sus. (e.g. netstat -tn, netstat -tlp, netstat -r, si netstat -sw).
Pentru a putea aprecia adevarata putere a acestui mic utilitar incercati #man 8 netstat।
OpenBSD is an ultra-secure, freely available, multi-platform BSD-based UNIX-like operating system. And is arguably the most secure operating system in the world.
This web site hopes to help out individuals who are experienced with UNIX systems but are not experienced with OpenBSD.
The goal of this site is to attract new users to OpenBSD by providing useful information for first time users covering the areas of:
Installation – demonstration and explanation of a FTP installation
Patching – patch files, source files and kernel building
Updating – updating ports, Xenocara and system sources using cvsup
Security – security suggestions for after the default install
Tips and Tricks – suggestions and configurations for new users
This document is a collection of Unix/Linux/BSD commands and tasks which are useful for IT work or for advanced users. This is a practical guide with concise explanations, however the reader is supposed to know what s/he is doing.
Unix Toolbox revision 13.2
The latest version of this document can be found at http://cb.vu/unixtoolbox.xhtml. Replace .xhtml on the link with .pdf for the PDF version and with .book.pdf for the booklet version. On a duplex printer the booklet will create a small book ready to bind. This XHTML page can be converted into a nice PDF document with a CSS3 compliant application (see the script example). See also the about page.
Error reports and comments are most welcome – c@cb.vu Colin Barschel.
# uname -a # Get the kernel version (and BSD version) # lsb_release -a # Full release info of any LSB distribution # cat /etc/SuSE-release # Get SuSE version # cat /etc/debian_version # Get Debian version
Use /etc/DISTR-release with DISTR= lsb (Ubuntu), redhat, gentoo, mandrake, sun (Solaris), and so on. See also /etc/issue.
# uptime # Show how long the system has been running + load # hostname # system’s host name # hostname -i # Display the IP address of the host. (Linux only) # man hier # Description of the file system hierarchy # last reboot # Show system reboot history
Hardware Informations
Kernel detected hardware
# dmesg # Detected hardware and boot messages # lsdev # information about installed hardware # dd if=/dev/mem bs=1k skip=768 count=256 2>/dev/null | strings -n 8 # Read BIOS
Linux
# cat /proc/cpuinfo # CPU model # cat /proc/meminfo # Hardware memory # grep MemTotal /proc/meminfo # Display the physical memory # watch -n1 ‘cat /proc/interrupts’ # Watch changeable interrupts continuously # free -m # Used and free memory (-m for MB) # cat /proc/devices # Configured devices # lspci -tv # Show PCI devices # lsusb -tv # Show USB devices # lshal # Show a list of all devices with their properties # dmidecode # Show DMI/SMBIOS: hw info from the BIOS
FreeBSD
# sysctl hw.model # CPU model # sysctl hw # Gives a lot of hardware information # sysctl vm # Memory usage # dmesg | grep “real mem” # Hardware memory # sysctl -a | grep mem # Kernel memory settings and info # sysctl dev # Configured devices # pciconf -l -cv # Show PCI devices # usbdevs -v # Show USB devices # atacontrol list # Show ATA devices # camcontrol devlist -v # Show SCSI devices
Load, statistics and messages
The following commands are useful to find out what is going on on the system.
# top # display and update the top cpu processes # mpstat 1 # display processors related statistics # vmstat 2 # display virtual memory statistics # iostat 2 # display I/O statistics (2 s intervals) # systat -vmstat 1 # BSD summary of system statistics (1 s intervals) # systat -tcp 1 # BSD tcp connections (try also -ip) # systat -netstat 1 # BSD active network connections # systat -ifstat 1 # BSD network traffic through active interfaces # systat -iostat 1 # BSD CPU and and disk throughput # tail -n 500 /var/log/messages # Last 500 kernel/syslog messages # tail /var/log/warn # System warnings messages see syslog.conf
Users
# id # Show the active user id with login and group # last # Show last logins on the system # who # Show who is logged on the system # groupadd admin # Add group “admin” and user colin (Linux/Solaris) # useradd -c “Colin Barschel” -g admin -m colin # usermod -a -G # Add existing user to group (Debian) # groupmod -A # Add existing user to group (SuSE) # userdel colin # Delete user colin (Linux/Solaris) # adduser joe # FreeBSD add user joe (interactive) # rmuser joe # FreeBSD delete user joe (interactive) # pw groupadd admin # Use pw on FreeBSD # pw groupmod admin -m newmember # Add a new member to a group # pw useradd colin -c “Colin Barschel” -g admin -m -s /bin/tcsh # pw userdel colin; pw groupdel admin
Encrypted passwords are stored in /etc/shadow for Linux and Solaris and /etc/master.passwd on FreeBSD. If the master.passwd is modified manually (say to delete a password), run # pwd_mkdb -p master.passwd to rebuild the database.
To temporarily prevent logins system wide (for all users but root) use nologin. The message in nologin will be displayed (might not work with ssh pre-shared keys).
# echo “Sorry no login now” > /etc/nologin # (Linux) # echo “Sorry no login now” > /var/run/nologin # (FreeBSD)
Limits
Some application require higher limits on open files and sockets (like a proxy web server, database). The default limits are usually too low. Linux
Per shell/script
The shell limits are governed by ulimit. The status is checked with ulimit -a. For example to change the open files limit from 1024 to 10240 do:
# ulimit -n 10240 # This is only valid within the shell
The ulimit command can be used in a script to change the limits for the script only.
Per user/process
Login users and applications can be configured in /etc/security/limits.conf. For example:
# cat /etc/security/limits.conf * hard nproc 250 # Limit user processes asterisk hard nofile 409600 # Limit application open files
System wide
Kernel limits are set with sysctl. Permanent limits are set in /etc/sysctl.conf.
# sysctl -a # View all system limits # sysctl fs.file-max # View max open files limit # sysctl fs.file-max=102400 # Change max open files limit # echo “1024 50000″ > /proc/sys/net/ipv4/ip_local_port_range # port range # cat /etc/sysctl.conf fs.file-max=102400 # Permanent entry in sysctl.conf # cat /proc/sys/fs/file-nr # How many file descriptors are in use
FreeBSD
Per shell/script
Use the command limits in csh or tcsh or as in Linux, use ulimit in an sh or bash shell. Per user/process
The default limits on login are set in /etc/login.conf. An unlimited value is still limited by the system maximal value. System wide
Kernel limits are also set with sysctl. Permanent limits are set in /etc/sysctl.conf or /boot/loader.conf. The syntax is the same as Linux but the keys are different.
# sysctl -a # View all system limits # sysctl kern.maxfiles=XXXX # maximum number of file descriptors kern.ipc.nmbclusters=32768 # Permanent entry in /etc/sysctl.conf kern.maxfiles=65536 # Typical values for Squid kern.maxfilesperproc=32768 kern.ipc.somaxconn=8192 # TCP queue. Better for apache/sendmail # sysctl kern.openfiles # How many file descriptors are in use # sysctl kern.ipc.numopensockets # How many open sockets are in use # sysctl -w net.inet.ip.portrange.last=50000 # Default is 1024-5000 # netstat -m # network memory buffers statistics
See The FreeBSD handbook Chapter 11http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/configtuning-kernel-limits.html for details.
Solaris
The following values in /etc/system will increase the maximum file descriptors per proc:
set rlim_fd_max = 4096 # Hard limit on file descriptors for a single proc set rlim_fd_cur = 1024 # Soft limit on file descriptors for a single proc
Runlevels
Linux
Once booted, the kernel starts init which then starts rc which starts all scripts belonging to a runlevel. The scripts are stored in /etc/init.d and are linked into /etc/rc.d/rcN.d with N the runlevel number.
The default runlevel is configured in /etc/inittab. It is usually 3 or 5:
# grep default: /etc/inittab id:3:initdefault:
The actual runlevel can be changed with init. For example to go from 3 to 5:
# init 5 # Enters runlevel 5
* 0 Shutdown and halt
* 1 Single-User mode (also S)
* 2 Multi-user without network
* 3 Multi-user with network
* 5 Multi-user with X
* 6 Reboot
Use chkconfig to configure the programs that will be started at boot in a runlevel.
# chkconfig –list # List all init scripts # chkconfig –list sshd # Report the status of sshd # chkconfig sshd –level 35 on # Configure sshd for levels 3 and 5 # chkconfig sshd off # Disable sshd for all runlevels
Debian and Debian based distributions like Ubuntu or Knoppix use the command update-rc.d to manage the runlevels scripts. Default is to start in 2,3,4 and 5 and shutdown in 0,1 and 6.
# update-rc.d sshd defaults # Activate sshd with the default runlevels # update-rc.d sshd start 20 2 3 4 5 . stop 20 0 1 6 . # With explicit arguments # update-rc.d -f sshd remove # Disable sshd for all runlevels # shutdown -h now (or # poweroff) # Shutdown and halt the system
FreeBSD
The BSD boot approach is different from the SysV, there are no runlevels. The final boot state (single user, with or without X) is configured in /etc/ttys. All OS scripts are located in /etc/rc.d/ and in /usr/local/etc/rc.d/ for third-party applications. The activation of the service is configured in /etc/rc.conf and /etc/rc.conf.local. The default behavior is configured in /etc/defaults/rc.conf. The scripts responds at least to start|stop|status.
# /etc/rc.d/sshd status sshd is running as pid 552. # shutdown now # Go into single-user mode # exit # Go back to multi-user mode # shutdown -p now # Shutdown and halt the system # shutdown -r now # Reboot
The process init can also be used to reach one of the following states level. For example # init 6 for reboot.
* 0 Halt and turn the power off (signal USR2)
* 1 Go to single-user mode (signal TERM)
* 6 Reboot the machine (signal INT)
* c Block further logins (signal TSTP)
* q Rescan the ttys(5) file (signal HUP)
Reset root password
Linux method 1
At the boot loader (lilo or grub), enter the following boot option:
init=/bin/sh
The kernel will mount the root partition and init will start the bourne shell instead of rc and then a runlevel. Use the command passwd at the prompt to change the password and then reboot. Forget the single user mode as you need the password for that.
If, after booting, the root partition is mounted read only, remount it rw:
# mount -o remount,rw / # passwd # or delete the root password (/etc/shadow) # sync; mount -o remount,ro / # sync before to remount read only # reboot
FreeBSD method 1
On FreeBSD, boot in single user mode, remount / rw and use passwd. You can select the single user mode on the boot menu (option 4) which is displayed for 10 seconds at startup. The single user mode will give you a root shell on the / partition.
# mount -u /; mount -a # will mount / rw # passwd # reboot
Unixes and FreeBSD and Linux method 2
Other Unixes might not let you go away with the simple init trick. The solution is to mount the root partition from an other OS (like a rescue CD) and change the password on the disk.
* Boot a live CD or installation CD into a rescue mode which will give you a shell.
* Find the root partition with fdisk e.g. fdisk /dev/sda
* Mount it and use chroot:
# mount -o rw /dev/ad4s3a /mnt # chroot /mnt # chroot into /mnt # passwd # reboot
Kernel modules
Linux
# lsmod # List all modules loaded in the kernel # modprobe isdn # To load a module (here isdn)
FreeBSD
# kldstat # List all modules loaded in the kernel # kldload crypto # To load a module (here crypto)
Compile Kernel
Linux
# cd /usr/src/linux # make mrproper # Clean everything, including config files # make oldconfig # Reuse the old .config if existent # make menuconfig # or xconfig (Qt) or gconfig (GTK) # make # Create a compressed kernel image # make modules # Compile the modules # make modules_install # Install the modules # make install # Install the kernel # reboot
FreeBSD
Optionally update the source tree (in /usr/src) with csup (as of FreeBSD 6.2 or later):
To modify and rebuild the kernel, copy the generic configuration file to a new name and edit it as needed (you can also edit the file GENERIC directly). To restart the build after an interruption, add the option NO_CLEAN=YES to the make command to avoid cleaning the objects already build.
# cd /usr/src/sys/i386/conf/ # cp GENERIC MYKERNEL # cd /usr/src # make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL # make installkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL
To rebuild the full OS:
# make buildworld # Build the full OS but not the kernel # make buildkernel # Use KERNCONF as above if appropriate # make installkernel # reboot # mergemaster -p # Compares only files known to be essential # make installworld # mergemaster -i -U # Update all configurations and other files # reboot
For small changes in the source you can use NO_CLEAN=yes to avoid rebuilding the whole tree.
# make buildworld NO_CLEAN=yes # Don’t delete the old objects # make buildkernel KERNCONF=MYKERNEL NO_CLEAN=yes
Repair grub
So you broke grub? Boot from a live cd, [find your linux partition under /dev and use fdisk to find the linux partion] mount the linux partition, add /proc and /dev and use grub-install /dev/xyz. Suppose linux lies on /dev/sda6:
# mount /dev/sda6 /mnt # mount the linux partition on /mnt # mount –bind /proc /mnt/proc # mount the proc subsystem into /mnt # mount –bind /dev /mnt/dev # mount the devices into /mnt # chroot /mnt # change root to the linux partition # grub-install /dev/sda # reinstall grub with your old settings
Processes
Listing | Priority | Background/Foreground | Top | Kill
Listing and PIDs
Each process has a unique number, the PID. A list of all running process is retrieved with ps.
# ps -auxefw # Extensive list of all running process
However more typical usage is with a pipe or with pgrep:
# ps axww | grep cron 586 ?? Is 0:01.48 /usr/sbin/cron -s # ps aux | grep ‘ss[h]‘ # Find all ssh pids without the grep pid # pgrep -l sshd # Find the PIDs of processes by (part of) name # echo $$ # The PID of your shell # fuser -va 22/tcp # List processes using port 22 (Linux) # fuser -va /home # List processes accessing the /home partition # strace df # Trace system calls and signals # truss df # same as above on FreeBSD/Solaris/Unixware # history | tail -50 # Display the last 50 used commands
Priority
Change the priority of a running process with renice. Negative numbers have a higher priority, the lowest is -20 and “nice” have a positive value.
# renice -5 586 # Stronger priority 586: old priority 0, new priority -5
Start the process with a defined priority with nice. Positive is “nice” or weak, negative is strong scheduling priority. Make sure you know if /usr/bin/nice or the shell built-in is used (check with # which nice).
# nice -n -5 top # Stronger priority (/usr/bin/nice) # nice -n 5 top # Weaker priority (/usr/bin/nice) # nice +5 top # tcsh builtin nice (same as above!)
While nice changes the CPU scheduler, an other useful command ionice will schedule the disk IO. This is very useful for intensive IO application which can bring a machine to its knees while still in a lower priority. The command is only available on Linux (AFAIK). You can select a class (idle – best effort – real time), the man page is short and well explained.
# ionice c3 -p123 # set idle class for pid 123 # ionice -c2 -n0 firefox # Run firefox with best effort and high priority # ionice -c3 -p$$ # Set the actual shell to idle priority
For example last command is very useful to compile (or debug) a large project. Every command launched from this shell will have a lover priority and will not disturb the system. $$ is your shell pid (try echo $$).
Background/Foreground
When started from a shell, processes can be brought in the background and back to the foreground with [Ctrl]-[Z] (^Z), bg and fg. For example start two processes, bring them in the background, list the processes with jobs and bring one in the foreground.
# ping cb.vu > ping.log ^Z # ping is suspended (stopped) with [Ctrl]-[Z] # bg # put in background and continues running # jobs -l # List processes in background [1] – 36232 Running ping cb.vu > ping.log [2] + 36233 Suspended (tty output) top # fg %2 # Bring process 2 back in foreground
Use nohup to start a process which has to keep running when the shell is closed (immune to hangups).
# nohup ping -i 60 > ping.log &
Top
The program top displays running information of processes. The program htop from htop.sourceforge.net is a very nice alternative and a more powerful version of top. Runs on Linux and FreeBSD (ports/sysutils/htop/).
# top
While top is running press the key h for a help overview. Useful keys are:
* u [user name] To display only the processes belonging to the user. Use + or blank to see all users
* k [pid] Kill the process with pid.
* 1 To display all processors statistics (Linux only)
* R Toggle normal/reverse sort.
Signals/Kill
Terminate or send a signal with kill or killall.
# ping -i 60 cb.vu > ping.log & [1] 4712 # kill -s TERM 4712 # same as kill -15 4712 # killall -1 httpd # Kill HUP processes by exact name # pkill -9 http # Kill TERM processes by (part of) name # pkill -TERM -u www # Kill TERM processes owned by www # fuser -k -TERM -m /home # Kill every process accessing /home (to umount)
Important signals are:
* 1 HUP (hang up)
* 2 INT (interrupt)
* 3 QUIT (quit)
* 9 KILL (non-catchable, non-ignorable kill)
* 15 TERM (software termination signal)
File System
Disk info | Boot | Disk usage | Opened files | Mount/remount | Mount SMB | Mount image | Burn ISO | Create image | Memory disk | Disk performance
Permissions
Change permission and ownership with chmod and chown. The default umask can be changed for all users in /etc/profile for Linux or /etc/login.conf for FreeBSD. The default umask is usually 022. The umask is subtracted from 777, thus umask 022 results in a permission 0f 755.
# chmod [OPTION] MODE[,MODE] FILE # MODE is of the form [ugoa]*([-+=]([rwxXst])) # chmod 640 /var/log/maillog # Restrict the log -rw-r—– # chmod u=rw,g=r,o= /var/log/maillog # Same as above # chmod -R o-r /home/* # Recursive remove other readable for all users # chmod u+s /path/to/prog # Set SUID bit on executable (know what you do!) # find / -perm -u+s -print # Find all programs with the SUID bit # chown user:group /path/to/file # Change the user and group ownership of a file # chgrp group /path/to/file # Change the group ownership of a file # chmod 640 `find ./ -type f -print` # Change permissions to 640 for all files # chmod 751 `find ./ -type d -print` # Change permissions to 751 for all directories
Disk information
# diskinfo -v /dev/ad2 # information about disk (sector/size) FreeBSD # hdparm -I /dev/sda # information about the IDE/ATA disk (Linux) # fdisk /dev/ad2 # Display and manipulate the partition table # smartctl -a /dev/ad2 # Display the disk SMART info
Boot
FreeBSD
To boot an old kernel if the new kernel doesn’t boot, stop the boot at during the count down.
# unload # load kernel.old # boot
System mount points/Disk usage
# mount | column -t # Show mounted file-systems on the system # df # display free disk space and mounted devices # cat /proc/partitions # Show all registered partitions (Linux)
Disk usage
# du -sh * # Directory sizes as listing # du -csh # Total directory size of the current directory # du -ks * | sort -n -r # Sort everything by size in kilobytes # ls -lSr # Show files, biggest last
Who has which files opened
This is useful to find out which file is blocking a partition which has to be unmounted and gives a typical error of:
# umount /home/ umount: unmount of /home # umount impossible because a file is locking home failed: Device busy
FreeBSD and most Unixes
# fstat -f /home # for a mount point # fstat -p PID # for an application with PID # fstat -u user # for a user name
Find opened log file (or other opened files), say for Xorg:
# ps ax | grep Xorg | awk ‘{print $1}’ 1252 # fstat -p 1252 USER CMD PID FD MOUNT INUM MODE SZ|DV R/W root Xorg 1252 root / 2 drwxr-xr-x 512 r root Xorg 1252 text /usr 216016 -rws–x–x 1679848 r root Xorg 1252 0 /var 212042 -rw-r–r– 56987 w
The file with inum 212042 is the only file in /var:
# find -x /var -inum 212042 /var/log/Xorg.0.log
Linux
Find opened files on a mount point with fuser or lsof:
# fuser -m /home # List processes accessing /home # lsof /home COMMAND PID USER FD TYPE DEVICE SIZE NODE NAME tcsh 29029 eedcoba cwd DIR 0,18 12288 1048587 /home/eedcoba (guam:/home) lsof 29140 eedcoba cwd DIR 0,18 12288 1048587 /home/eedcoba (guam:/home)
Find the partition number containing with fdisk, this is usually the root partition, but it could be an other BSD slice too. If the FreeBSD has many slices, they are the one not listed in the fdisk table, but visible in /dev/sda* or /dev/hda*.
# fdisk /dev/sda # Find the FreeBSD partition /dev/sda3 * 5357 7905 20474842+ a5 FreeBSD # mount -t ufs -o ufstype=ufs2,ro /dev/sda3 /mnt /dev/sda10 = /tmp; /dev/sda11 /usr # The other slices
Remount
Remount a device without unmounting it. Necessary for fsck for example
# mount -o remount,ro / # Linux # mount -o ro / # FreeBSD
Copy the raw data from a cdrom into an iso image:
# dd if=/dev/cd0c of=file.iso
Add swap on-the-fly
Suppose you need more swap (right now), say a 2GB file /swap2gb (Linux only).
# dd if=/dev/zero of=/swap2gb bs=1024k count=2000 # mkswap /swap2gb # create the swap area # swapon /swap2gb # activate the swap. It now in use # swapoff /swap2gb # when done deactivate the swap # rm /swap2gb
Mount an SMB share
Suppose we want to access the SMB share myshare on the computer smbserver, the address as typed on a Windows PC is \\smbserver\myshare\. We mount on /mnt/smbshare. Warning> cifs wants an IP or DNS name, not a Windows name. Linux
# smbclient -U user -I 192.168.16.229 -L //smbshare/ # List the shares # mount -t smbfs -o username=winuser //smbserver/myshare /mnt/smbshare # mount -t cifs -o username=winuser,password=winpwd //192.168.16.229/myshare /mnt/share
Additionally with the package mount.cifs it is possible to store the credentials in a file, for example /home/user/.smb:
username=winuser password=winpwd
And mount as follow:
# mount -t cifs -o credentials=/home/user/.smb //192.168.16.229/myshare /mnt/smbshare
FreeBSD
Use -I to give the IP (or DNS name); smbserver is the Windows name.
# smbutil view -I 192.168.16.229 //winuser@smbserver # List the shares # mount_smbfs -I 192.168.16.229 //winuser@smbserver/myshare /mnt/smbshare
Mount an image
Linux loop-back
# mount -t iso9660 -o loop file.iso /mnt # Mount a CD image # mount -t ext3 -o loop file.img /mnt # Mount an image with ext3 fs
FreeBSD
With memory device (do # kldload md.ko if necessary):
# mdconfig -a -t vnode -f file.iso -u 0 # mount -t cd9660 /dev/md0 /mnt # umount /mnt; mdconfig -d -u 0 # Cleanup the md device
Or with virtual node:
# vnconfig /dev/vn0c file.iso; mount -t cd9660 /dev/vn0c /mnt # umount /mnt; vnconfig -u /dev/vn0c # Cleanup the vn device
Solaris and FreeBSD
with loop-back file interface or lofi:
# lofiadm -a file.iso # mount -F hsfs -o ro /dev/lofi/1 /mnt # umount /mnt; lofiadm -d /dev/lofi/1 # Cleanup the lofi device
Create and burn an ISO image
This will copy the cd or DVD sector for sector. Without conv=notrunc, the image will be smaller if there is less content on the cd. See below and the dd examples.
Use mkisofs to create a CD/DVD image from files in a directory. To overcome the file names restrictions: -r enables the Rock Ridge extensions common to UNIX systems, -J enables Joliet extensions used by Microsoft systems. -L allows ISO9660 filenames to begin with a period.
# mkisofs -J -L -r -V TITLE -o imagefile.iso /path/to/dir
On FreeBSD, mkisofs is found in the ports in sysutils/cdrtools. Burn a CD/DVD ISO image
FreeBSD
FreeBSD does not enable DMA on ATAPI drives by default. DMA is enabled with the sysctl command and the arguments below, or with /boot/loader.conf with the following entries:
hw.ata.ata_dma=”1″ hw.ata.atapi_dma=”1″
Use burncd with an ATAPI device (burncd is part of the base system) and cdrecord (in sysutils/cdrtools) with a SCSI drive.
# burncd -f /dev/acd0 data imagefile.iso fixate # For ATAPI drive # cdrecord -scanbus # To find the burner device (like 1,0,0) # cdrecord dev=1,0,0 imagefile.iso
Linux
Also use cdrecord with Linux as described above. Additionally it is possible to use the native ATAPI interface which is found with:
# cdrecord dev=ATAPI -scanbus
And burn the CD/DVD as above. dvd+rw-tools
The dvd+rw-tools package (FreeBSD: ports/sysutils/dvd+rw-tools) can do it all and includes growisofs to burn CDs or DVDs. The examples refer to the dvd device as /dev/dvd which could be a symlink to /dev/scd0 (typical scsi on Linux) or /dev/cd0 (typical FreeBSD) or /dev/rcd0c (typical NetBSD/OpenBSD character SCSI) or /dev/rdsk/c0t1d0s2 (Solaris example of a character SCSI/ATAPI CD-ROM device). There is a nice documentation with examples on the FreeBSD handbook chapter 18.7http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/creating-dvds.html.
# -dvd-compat closes the disk # growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/dvd=imagefile.iso # Burn existing iso image # growisofs -dvd-compat -Z /dev/dvd -J -R /p/to/data # Burn directly
Convert a Nero .nrg file to .iso
Nero simply adds a 300Kb header to a normal iso image. This can be trimmed with dd.
The file based image can be automatically mounted during boot with an entry in /etc/rc.conf and /etc/fstab. Test your setup with # /etc/rc.d/mdconfig start (first delete the md0 device with # mdconfig -d -u 0).
Note however that this automatic setup will only work if the file image is NOT on the root partition. The reason is that the /etc/rc.d/mdconfig script is executed very early during boot and the root partition is still read-only. Images located outside the root partition will be mounted later with the script /etc/rc.d/mdconfig2.
/boot/loader.conf:
md_load=”YES”
/etc/rc.conf:
# mdconfig_md0=”-t vnode -f /usr/vdisk.img” # /usr is not on the root partition
/etc/fstab: (The 0 0 at the end is important, it tell fsck to ignore this device, as is does not exist yet)
/dev/md0 /usr/vdisk ufs rw 0 0
It is also possible to increase the size of the image afterward, say for example 300 MB larger.
# umount /mnt; mdconfig -d -u 0 # dd if=/dev/zero bs=1m count=300 >> /usr/vdisk.img # mdconfig -a -t vnode -f /usr/vdisk.img -u 0 # growfs /dev/md0 # mount /dev/md0c /mnt # File partition is now 300 MB larger
Read and write a 1 GB file on partition ad4s3c (/home)
# time dd if=/dev/ad4s3c of=/dev/null bs=1024k count=1000 # time dd if=/dev/zero bs=1024k count=1000 of=/home/1Gb.file # hdparm -tT /dev/hda # Linux only
Network
Routing | Additional IP | Change MAC | Ports | Firewall | IP Forward | NAT | DNS | DHCP | Traffic | QoS | NIS | Netcat
Debugging (See also Traffic analysis)
Linux
# ethtool eth0 # Show the ethernet status (replaces mii-diag) # ethtool -s eth0 speed 100 duplex full # Force 100Mbit Full duplex # ethtool -s eth0 autoneg off # Disable auto negotiation # ethtool -p eth1 # Blink the ethernet led – very useful when supported # ip link show # Display all interfaces on Linux (similar to ifconfig) # ip link set eth0 up # Bring device up (or down). Same as “ifconfig eth0 up” # ip addr show # Display all IP addresses on Linux (similar to ifconfig) # ip neigh show # Similar to arp -a
Other OSes
# ifconfig fxp0 # Check the “media” field on FreeBSD # arp -a # Check the router (or host) ARP entry (all OS) # ping cb.vu # The first thing to try… # traceroute cb.vu # Print the route path to destination # ifconfig fxp0 media 100baseTX mediaopt full-duplex # 100Mbit full duplex (FreeBSD) # netstat -s # System-wide statistics for each network protocol
Additional commands which are not always installed per default but easy to find:
# arping 192.168.16.254 # Ping on ethernet layer # tcptraceroute -f 5 cb.vu # uses tcp instead of icmp to trace through firewalls
Routing
Print routing table
# route -n # Linux or use “ip route” # netstat -rn # Linux, BSD and UNIX # route print # Windows
# route add -net 192.168.20.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 gw 192.168.16.254 # ip route add 192.168.20.0/24 via 192.168.16.254 # same as above with ip route # route add -net 192.168.20.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 dev eth0 # route add default gw 192.168.51.254 # ip route add default via 192.168.51.254 dev eth0 # same as above with ip route # route delete -net 192.168.20.0 netmask 255.255.255.0
Solaris
# route add -net 192.168.20.0 -netmask 255.255.255.0 192.168.16.254 # route add default 192.168.51.254 1 # 1 = hops to the next gateway # route change default 192.168.50.254 1
Permanent entries are set in entry in /etc/defaultrouter. Windows
# ifconfig eth0 192.168.50.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 # First IP # ifconfig eth0:0 192.168.51.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 # Second IP # ip addr add 192.168.50.254/24 dev eth0 # Equivalent ip commands # ip addr add 192.168.51.254/24 dev eth0 label eth0:1
FreeBSD
# ifconfig fxp0 inet 192.168.50.254/24 # First IP # ifconfig fxp0 alias 192.168.51.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 # Second IP # ifconfig fxp0 -alias 192.168.51.254 # Remove second IP alias
# ifconfig hme0 plumb # Enable the network card # ifconfig hme0 192.168.50.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 up # First IP # ifconfig hme0:1 192.168.51.254 netmask 255.255.255.0 up # Second IP
Change MAC address
Normally you have to bring the interface down before the change. Don’t tell me why you want to change the MAC address…
# ifconfig eth0 down # ifconfig eth0 hw ether 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Linux # ifconfig fxp0 link 00:01:02:03:04:05 # FreeBSD # ifconfig hme0 ether 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Solaris # sudo ifconfig en0 ether 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Mac OS X Tiger # sudo ifconfig en0 lladdr 00:01:02:03:04:05 # Mac OS X Leopard
Many tools exist for Windows. For example etherchangehttp://ntsecurity.nu/toolbox/etherchange. Or look for “Mac Makeup”, “smac”.
Ports in use
Listening open ports:
# netstat -an | grep LISTEN # lsof -i # Linux list all Internet connections # socklist # Linux display list of open sockets # sockstat -4 # FreeBSD application listing # netstat -anp –udp –tcp | grep LISTEN # Linux # netstat -tup # List active connections to/from system (Linux) # netstat -tupl # List listening ports from system (Linux) # netstat -ano # Windows
Firewall
Check if a firewall is running (typical configuration only): Linux
# iptables -L -n -v # For status Open the iptables firewall # iptables -P INPUT ACCEPT # Open everything # iptables -P FORWARD ACCEPT # iptables -P OUTPUT ACCEPT # iptables -Z # Zero the packet and byte counters in all chains # iptables -F # Flush all chains # iptables -X # Delete all chains
FreeBSD
# ipfw show # For status # ipfw list 65535 # if answer is “65535 deny ip from any to any” the fw is disabled # sysctl net.inet.ip.fw.enable=0 # Disable # sysctl net.inet.ip.fw.enable=1 # Enable
# sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding # Check IP forward 0=off, 1=on # sysctl net.inet.ip.forwarding=1 # sysctl net.inet.ip.fastforwarding=1 # For dedicated router or firewall Permanent with entry in /etc/rc.conf: gateway_enable=”YES” # Set to YES if this host will be a gateway.
Solaris
# ndd -set /dev/ip ip_forwarding 1 # Set IP forward 0=off, 1=on
NAT Network Address Translation
Linux
# iptables -t nat -A POSTROUTING -o eth0 -j MASQUERADE # to activate NAT # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -p tcp -d 78.31.70.238 –dport 20022 -j DNAT \ –to 192.168.16.44:22 # Port forward 20022 to internal IP port ssh # iptables -t nat -A PREROUTING -p tcp -d 78.31.70.238 –dport 993:995 -j DNAT \ –to 192.168.16.254:993-995 # Port forward of range 993-995 # ip route flush cache # iptables -L -t nat # Check NAT status
Delete the port forward with -D instead of -A.
FreeBSD
# natd -s -m -u -dynamic -f /etc/natd.conf -n fxp0 Or edit /etc/rc.conf with: firewall_enable=”YES” # Set to YES to enable firewall functionality firewall_type=”open” # Firewall type (see /etc/rc.firewall) natd_enable=”YES” # Enable natd (if firewall_enable == YES). natd_interface=”tun0″ # Public interface or IP address to use. natd_flags=”-s -m -u -dynamic -f /etc/natd.conf”
Port forward with:
# cat /etc/natd.conf same_ports yes use_sockets yes unregistered_only # redirect_port tcp insideIP:2300-2399 3300-3399 # port range redirect_port udp 192.168.51.103:7777 7777
DNS
On Unix the DNS entries are valid for all interfaces and are stored in /etc/resolv.conf. The domain to which the host belongs is also stored in this file. A minimal configuration is:
On Windows the DNS are configured per interface. To display the configured DNS and to flush the DNS cache use:
# ipconfig /? # Display help # ipconfig /all # See all information including DNS # ipconfig /flushdns # Flush the DNS cache
Forward queries
Dig is you friend to test the DNS settings. For example the public DNS server 213.133.105.2 ns.second-ns.de can be used for testing. See from which server the client receives the answer (simplified answer).
# dig sleepyowl.net sleepyowl.net. 600 IN A 78.31.70.238 ;; SERVER: 192.168.51.254#53(192.168.51.254)
The router 192.168.51.254 answered and the response is the A entry. Any entry can be queried and the DNS server can be selected with @:
# dig MX google.com # dig @127.0.0.1 NS sun.com # To test the local server # dig @204.97.212.10 NS MX heise.de # Query an external server # dig AXFR @ns1.xname.org cb.vu # Get the full zone (zone transfer)
The program host is also powerful.
# host -t MX cb.vu # Get the mail MX entry # host -t NS -T sun.com # Get the NS record over a TCP connection # host -a sleepyowl.net # Get everything
Reverse queries
Find the name belonging to an IP address (in-addr.arpa.). This can be done with dig, host and nslookup:
Single hosts can be configured in the file /etc/hosts instead of running named locally to resolve the hostname queries. The format is simple, for example:
78.31.70.238 sleepyowl.net sleepyowl
The priority between hosts and a dns query, that is the name resolution order, can be configured in /etc/nsswitch.conf AND /etc/host.conf. The file also exists on Windows, it is usually in:
C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM32\DRIVERS\ETC
DHCP
Linux
Some distributions (SuSE) use dhcpcd as client. The default interface is eth0.
# dhcpcd -n eth0 # Trigger a renew (does not always work) # dhcpcd -k eth0 # release and shutdown
The lease with the full information is stored in:
/var/lib/dhcpcd/dhcpcd-eth0.info
FreeBSD
FreeBSD (and Debian) uses dhclient. To configure an interface (for example bge0) run:
# ipconfig /renew # renew all adapters # ipconfig /renew LAN # renew the adapter named “LAN” # ipconfig /release WLAN # release the adapter named “WLAN”
Yes it is a good idea to rename you adapter with simple names!
Traffic analysis
Bmonhttp://people.suug.ch/~tgr/bmon/ is a small console bandwidth monitor and can display the flow on different interfaces. Sniff with tcpdump
# tcpdump -nl -i bge0 not port ssh and src \(192.168.16.121 or 192.168.16.54\) # tcpdump -n -i eth1 net 192.168.16.121 # select to/from a single IP # tcpdump -n -i eth1 net 192.168.16.0/24 # select traffic to/from a network # tcpdump -l > dump && tail -f dump # Buffered output # tcpdump -i rl0 -w traffic.rl0 # Write traffic headers in binary file # tcpdump -i rl0 -s 0 -w traffic.rl0 # Write traffic + payload in binary file # tcpdump -r traffic.rl0 # Read from file (also for ethereal # tcpdump port 80 # The two classic commands # tcpdump host google.com # tcpdump -i eth0 -X port \(110 or 143\) # Check if pop or imap is secure # tcpdump -n -i eth0 icmp # Only catch pings # tcpdump -i eth0 -s 0 -A port 80 | grep GET # -s 0 for full packet -A for ASCII
Additional important options:
* -A Print each packets in clear text (without header)
* -X Print packets in hex and ASCII
* -l Make stdout line buffered
* -D Print all interfaces available
On Windows use windump from www.winpcap.org. Use windump -D to list the interfaces. Scan with nmap
Nmaphttp://insecure.org/nmap/ is a port scanner with OS detection, it is usually installed on most distributions and is also available for Windows. If you don’t scan your servers, hackers do it for you…
# nmap cb.vu # scans all reserved TCP ports on the host # nmap -sP 192.168.16.0/24 # Find out which IP are used and by which host on 0/24 # nmap -sS -sV -O cb.vu # Do a stealth SYN scan with version and OS detection PORT STATE SERVICE VERSION 22/tcp open ssh OpenSSH 3.8.1p1 FreeBSD-20060930 (protocol 2.0) 25/tcp open smtp Sendmail smtpd 8.13.6/8.13.6 80/tcp open http Apache httpd 2.0.59 ((FreeBSD) DAV/2 PHP/4. [...] Running: FreeBSD 5.X Uptime 33.120 days (since Fri Aug 31 11:41:04 2007)
Other non standard but useful tools are hping (www.hping.org) an IP packet assembler/analyzer and fping (fping.sourceforge.net). fping can check multiple hosts in a round-robin fashion.
Traffic control (QoS)
Traffic control manages the queuing, policing, scheduling, and other traffic parameters for a network. The following examples are simple practical uses of the Linux and FreeBSD capabilities to better use the available bandwidth. Limit upload
DSL or cable modems have a long queue to improve the upload throughput. However filling the queue with a fast device (e.g. ethernet) will dramatically decrease the interactivity. It is therefore useful to limit the device upload rate to match the physical capacity of the modem, this should greatly improve the interactivity. Set to about 90% of the modem maximal (cable) speed. Linux
For a 512 Kbit upload modem.
# tc qdisc add dev eth0 root tbf rate 480kbit latency 50ms burst 1540 # tc -s qdisc ls dev eth0 # Status # tc qdisc del dev eth0 root # Delete the queue # tc qdisc change dev eth0 root tbf rate 220kbit latency 50ms burst 1540
FreeBSD
FreeBSD uses the dummynet traffic shaper which is configured with ipfw. Pipes are used to set limits the bandwidth in units of [K|M]{bit/s|Byte/s}, 0 means unlimited bandwidth. Using the same pipe number will reconfigure it. For example limit the upload bandwidth to 500 Kbit.
# kldload dummynet # load the module if necessary # ipfw pipe 1 config bw 500Kbit/s # create a pipe with limited bandwidth # ipfw add pipe 1 ip from me to any # divert the full upload into the pipe
Quality of service
Linux
Priority queuing with tc to optimize VoIP. See the full example on voip-info.org or www.howtoforge.com. Suppose VoIP uses udp on ports 10000:11024 and device eth0 (could also be ppp0 or so). The following commands define the QoS to three queues and force the VoIP traffic to queue 1 with QoS 0x1e (all bits set). The default traffic flows into queue 3 and QoS Minimize-Delay flows into queue 2.
# tc qdisc add dev eth0 root handle 1: prio priomap 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 # tc qdisc add dev eth0 parent 1:1 handle 10: sfq # tc qdisc add dev eth0 parent 1:2 handle 20: sfq # tc qdisc add dev eth0 parent 1:3 handle 30: sfq # tc filter add dev eth0 protocol ip parent 1: prio 1 u32 \ match ip dport 10000 0x3C00 flowid 1:1 # use server port range match ip dst 123.23.0.1 flowid 1:1 # or/and use server IP
Status and remove with
# tc -s qdisc ls dev eth0 # queue status # tc qdisc del dev eth0 root # delete all QoS
Calculate port range and mask
The tc filter defines the port range with port and mask which you have to calculate. Find the 2^N ending of the port range, deduce the range and convert to HEX. This is your mask. Example for 10000 -> 11024, the range is 1024.
# 2^13 (8192) < 10000 < 2^14 (16384) # ending is 2^14 = 16384 # echo “obase=16;(2^14)-1024″ | bc # mask is 0x3C00
FreeBSD
The max link bandwidth is 500Kbit/s and we define 3 queues with priority 100:10:1 for VoIP:ssh:all the rest.
# ipfw pipe 1 config bw 500Kbit/s # ipfw queue 1 config pipe 1 weight 100 # ipfw queue 2 config pipe 1 weight 10 # ipfw queue 3 config pipe 1 weight 1 # ipfw add 10 queue 1 proto udp dst-port 10000-11024 # ipfw add 11 queue 1 proto udp dst-ip 123.23.0.1 # or/and use server IP # ipfw add 20 queue 2 dsp-port ssh # ipfw add 30 queue 3 from me to any # all the rest
Status and remove with
# ipfw list # rules status # ipfw pipe list # pipe status # ipfw flush # deletes all rules but default
NIS Debugging
Some commands which should work on a well configured NIS client:
# ypwhich # get the connected NIS server name # domainname # The NIS domain name as configured # ypcat group # should display the group from the NIS server # cd /var/yp && make # Rebuild the yp database
Is ypbind running?
# ps auxww | grep ypbind /usr/sbin/ypbind -s -m -S servername1,servername2 # FreeBSD /usr/sbin/ypbind # Linux # yppoll passwd.byname Map passwd.byname has order number 1190635041. Mon Sep 24 13:57:21 2007 The master server is servername.domain.net.
Netcathttp://netcat.sourceforge.net (nc) is better known as the “network Swiss Army Knife”, it can manipulate, create or read/write TCP/IP connections. Here some useful examples, there are many more on the net, for example g-loaded.eu[...]http://www.g-loaded.eu/2006/11/06/netcat-a-couple-of-useful-examples and herehttp://www.terminally-incoherent.com/blog/2007/08/07/few-useful-netcat-tricks. You might need to use the command netcat instead of nc. Also see the similar command socat.
File transfer
Copy a large folder over a raw tcp connection. The transfer is very quick (no protocol overhead) and you don’t need to mess up with NFS or SMB or FTP or so, simply make the file available on the server, and get it from the client. Here 192.168.1.1 is the server IP address.
server# tar -cf – -C VIDEO_TS . | nc -l -p 4444 # Serve tar folder on port 4444 client# nc 192.168.1.1 4444 | tar xpf – -C VIDEO_TS # Pull the file on port 4444 server# cat largefile | nc -l 5678 # Server a single file client# nc 192.168.1.1 5678 > largefile # Pull the single file server# dd if=/dev/da0 | nc -l 4444 # Server partition image client# nc 192.168.1.1 4444 | dd of=/dev/da0 # Pull partition to clone client# nc 192.168.1.1 4444 | dd of=da0.img # Pull partition to file
Other hacks
Specially here, you must know what you are doing. Remote shell
Option -e only on the Windows version? Or use nc 1.10.
# nc -lp 4444 -e /bin/bash # Provide a remote shell (server backdoor) # nc -lp 4444 -e cmd.exe # remote shell for Windows
Emergency web server
Serve a single file on port 80 in a loop.
# while true; do nc -l -p 80 < unixtoolbox.xhtml; done
Chat
Alice and Bob can chat over a simple TCP socket. The text is transferred with the enter key.
alice# nc -lp 4444 bob # nc 192.168.1.1 4444
SSH SCP
Public key | Fingerprint | SCP | Tunneling
Public key authentication
Connect to a host without password using public key authentication. The idea is to append your public key to the authorized_keys2 file on the remote host. For this example let’s connect host-client to host-server, the key is generated on the client. With cygwin you might have to create your home directoy and the .ssh directory with # mkdir -p /home/USER/.ssh
* Use ssh-keygen to generate a key pair. ~/.ssh/id_dsa is the private key, ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub is the public key.
* Copy only the public key to the server and append it to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys2 on your home on the server.
The non commercial version of the ssh.com client can be downloaded the main ftp site: ftp.ssh.com/pub/ssh/. Keys generated by the ssh.com client need to be converted for the OpenSSH server. This can be done with the ssh-keygen command.
* Create a key pair with the ssh.com client: Settings – User Authentication – Generate New….
* I use Key type DSA; key length 2048.
* Copy the public key generated by the ssh.com client to the server into the ~/.ssh folder.
* The keys are in C:\Documents and Settings\%USERNAME%\Application Data\SSH\UserKeys.
* Use the ssh-keygen command on the server to convert the key:
# cd ~/.ssh # ssh-keygen -i -f keyfilename.pub >> authorized_keys2
Notice: We used a DSA key, RSA is also possible. The key is not protected by a password. Using putty for Windows
Puttyhttp://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/putty/download.html is a simple and free ssh client for Windows.
* Create a key pair with the puTTYgen program.
* Save the public and private keys (for example into C:\Documents and Settings\%USERNAME%\.ssh).
* Copy the public key to the server into the ~/.ssh folder:
# scp .ssh/puttykey.pub root@192.168.51.254:.ssh/
* Use the ssh-keygen command on the server to convert the key for OpenSSH:
# cd ~/.ssh # ssh-keygen -i -f puttykey.pub >> authorized_keys2
* Point the private key location in the putty settings: Connection – SSH – Auth
Check fingerprint
At the first login, ssh will ask if the unknown host with the fingerprint has to be stored in the known hosts. To avoid a man-in-the-middle attack the administrator of the server can send you the server fingerprint which is then compared on the first login. Use ssh-keygen -l to get the fingerprint (on the server):
Now the client connecting to this server can verify that he is connecting to the right server:
# ssh linda The authenticity of host ‘linda (192.168.16.54)’ can’t be established. DSA key fingerprint is 14:4a:aa:d9:73:25:46:6d:0a:48:35:c7:f4:16:d4:ee. Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes
In Konqueror or Midnight Commander it is possible to access a remote file system with the address fish://user@gate. However the implementation is very slow.
Furthermore it is possible to mount a remote folder with sshfs a file system client based on SCP. See fuse sshfshttp://fuse.sourceforge.net/sshfs.html.
Tunneling
SSH tunneling allows to forward or reverse forward a port over the SSH connection, thus securing the traffic and accessing ports which would otherwise be blocked. This only works with TCP. The general nomenclature for forward and reverse is (see also ssh and NAT example):
# ssh -L localport:desthost:destport user@gate # desthost as seen from the gate # ssh -R destport:desthost:localport user@gate # forwards your localport to destination # ssh -X user@gate # To force X forwarding
This will connect to gate and forward the local port to the host desthost:destport. Note desthost is the destination host as seen by the gate, so if the connection is to the gate, then desthost is localhost. More than one port forward is possible. Direct forward on the gate
Let say we want to access the CVS (port 2401) and http (port 80) which are running on the gate. This is the simplest example, desthost is thus localhost, and we use the port 8080 locally instead of 80 so we don’t need to be root. Once the ssh session is open, both services are accessible on the local ports.
The smb share can now be accessed with \\127.0.0.1\, but only if the local share is disabled, because the local share is listening on port 139.
It is possible to keep the local share enabled, for this we need to create a new virtual device with a new IP address for the tunnel, the smb share will be connected over this address. Furthermore the local RDP is already listening on 3389, so we choose 3388. For this example let’s use a virtual IP of 10.1.1.1.
* With putty use Source port=10.1.1.1:139. It is possible to create multiple loop devices and tunnel. On Windows 2000, only putty worked for me. On Windows Vista also forward the port 445 in addition to the port 139. Also on Vista the patch KB942624 prevents the port 445 to be forwarded, so I had to uninstall this path in Vista.
* With the ssh.com client, disable “Allow local connections only”. Since ssh.com will bind to all addresses, only a single share can be connected.
Now create the loopback interface with IP 10.1.1.1:
* # System->Control Panel->Add Hardware # Yes, Hardware is already connected # Add a new hardware device (at bottom).
* # Install the hardware that I manually select # Network adapters # Microsoft , Microsoft Loopback Adapter.
* Configure the IP address of the fake device to 10.1.1.1 mask 255.255.255.0, no gateway.
* advanced->WINS, Enable LMHosts Lookup; Disable NetBIOS over TCP/IP.
* # Enable Client for Microsoft Networks. # Disable File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks.
I HAD to reboot for this to work. Now connect to the smb share with \\10.1.1.1 and remote desktop to 10.1.1.1:3388. Debug
If it is not working:
* Are the ports forwarded: netstat -an? Look at 0.0.0.0:139 or 10.1.1.1:139
* Does telnet 10.1.1.1 139 connect?
* You need the checkbox “Local ports accept connections from other hosts”.
* Is “File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks” disabled on the loopback interface?
Connect two clients behind NAT
Suppose two clients are behind a NAT gateway and client cliadmin has to connect to client cliuser (the destination), both can login to the gate with ssh and are running Linux with sshd. You don’t need root access anywhere as long as the ports on gate are above 1024. We use 2022 on gate. Also since the gate is used locally, the option GatewayPorts is not necessary.
Suppose a Windows client with VNC listening on port 5900 has to be accessed from behind NAT. On client cliwin to gate:
# ssh -R 15900:localhost:5900 user@gate
On client cliadmin (from host to gate):
# ssh -L 5900:localhost:15900 admin@gate
Now the admin can connect directly to the client VNC with:
# vncconnect -display :0 localhost
Dig a multi-hop ssh tunnel
Suppose you can not reach a server directly with ssh, but only via multiple intermediate hosts (for example because of routing issues). Sometimes it is still necessary to get a direct client – server connection, for example to copy files with scp, or forward other ports like smb or vnc. One way to do this is to chain tunnels together to forward a port to the server along the hops. This “carrier” port only reaches its final destination on the last connection to the server.
Suppose we want to forward the ssh port from a client to a server over two hops. Once the tunnel is build, it is possible to connect to the server directly from the client (and also add an other port forward). Create tunnel in one shell
client -> host1 -> host2 -> server and dig tunnel 5678
client># ssh -L5678:localhost:5678 host1 # 5678 is an arbitrary port for the tunnel host_1># ssh -L5678:localhost:5678 host2 # chain 5678 from host1 to host2 host_2># ssh -L5678:localhost:22 server # end the tunnel on port 22 on the server
Use tunnel with an other shell
client -> server using tunnel 5678
# ssh -p 5678 localhost # connect directly from client to server # scp -P 5678 myfile localhost:/tmp/ # or copy a file directly using the tunnel # rsync -e ‘ssh -p 5678′ myfile localhost:/tmp/ # or rsync a file directly to the server
VPN with SSH
As of version 4.3, OpenSSH can use the tun/tap device to encrypt a tunnel. This is very similar to other TLS based VPN solutions like OpenVPN. One advantage with SSH is that there is no need to install and configure additional software. Additionally the tunnel uses the SSH authentication like pre shared keys. The drawback is that the encapsulation is done over TCP which might result in poor performance on a slow link. Also the tunnel is relying on a single (fragile) TCP connection. This technique is very useful for a quick IP based VPN setup. There is no limitation as with the single TCP port forward, all layer 3/4 protocols like ICMP, TCP/UDP, etc. are forwarded over the VPN. In any case, the following options are needed in the sshd_conf file:
PermitRootLogin yes PermitTunnel yes
Single P2P connection
Here we are connecting two hosts, hclient and hserver with a peer to peer tunnel. The connection is started from hclient to hserver and is done as root. The tunnel end points are 10.0.1.1 (server) and 10.0.1.2 (client) and we create a device tun5 (this could also be an other number). The procedure is very simple:
* Connect with SSH using the tunnel option -w
* Configure the IP addresses of the tunnel. Once on the server and once on the client.
Connect to the server
Connection started on the client and commands are executed on the server. Server is on Linux
cli># ssh -w5:5 root@hserver srv># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.1 netmask 255.255.255.252 # Executed on the server shell
Server is on FreeBSD
cli># ssh -w5:5 root@hserver srv># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.1 10.0.1.2 # Executed on the server shell
Configure the client
Commands executed on the client:
cli># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.2 netmask 255.255.255.252 # Client is on Linux cli># ifconfig tun5 10.0.1.2 10.0.1.1 # Client is on FreeBSD
The two hosts are now connected and can transparently communicate with any layer 3/4 protocol using the tunnel IP addresses.
Connect two networks
In addition to the p2p setup above, it is more useful to connect two private networks with an SSH VPN using two gates. Suppose for the example, netA is 192.168.51.0/24 and netB 192.168.16.0/24. The procedure is similar as above, we only need to add the routing. NAT must be activated on the private interface only if the gates are not the same as the default gateway of their network.
The two private networks are now transparently connected via the SSH VPN. The IP forward and NAT settings are only necessary if the gates are not the default gateways. In this case the clients would not know where to forward the response, and nat must be activated.
RSYNC
Rsync can almost completely replace cp and scp, furthermore interrupted transfers are efficiently restarted. A trailing slash (and the absence thereof) has different meanings, the man page is good… Here some examples:
Copy the directories with full content:
# rsync -a /home/colin/ /backup/colin/ # rsync -a /var/ /var_bak/ # rsync -aR –delete-during /home/user/ /backup/ # use relative (see below)
Same as before but over the network and with compression. Rsync uses SSH for the transport per default and will use the ssh key if they are set. Use “:” as with SCP. A typical remote copy:
Exclude any directory tmp within /home/user/ and keep the relative folders hierarchy, that is the remote directory will have the structure /backup/home/user/. This is typically used for backups.
Using the rsync daemon (used with “::”) is much faster, but not encrypted over ssh. The location of /backup is defined by the configuration in /etc/rsyncd.conf. The variable RSYNC_PASSWORD can be set to avoid the need to enter the password manually.
# rsync -axSRz /home/ ruser@hostname::rmodule/backup/ # rsync -axSRz ruser@hostname::rmodule/backup/ /home/ # To copy back
Some important options:
* -a, –archive archive mode; same as -rlptgoD (no -H)
* -r, –recursive recurse into directories
* -R, –relative use relative path names
* -H, –hard-links preserve hard links
* -S, –sparse handle sparse files efficiently
* -x, –one-file-system don’t cross file system boundaries
* –exclude=PATTERN exclude files matching PATTERN
* –delete-during receiver deletes during xfer, not before
* –delete-after receiver deletes after transfer, not before
Rsync on Windows
Rsync is available for Windows through cygwin or as stand-alone packaged in cwrsynchttp://sourceforge.net/projects/sereds. This is very convenient for automated backups. Install one of them (not both) and add the path to the Windows system variables: # Control Panel -> System -> tab Advanced, button Environment Variables. Edit the “Path” system variable and add the full path to the installed rsync, e.g. C:\Program Files\cwRsync\bin or C:\cygwin\bin. This way the commands rsync and ssh are available in a Windows command shell. Public key authentication
Rsync is automatically tunneled over SSH and thus uses the SSH authentication on the server. Automatic backups have to avoid a user interaction, for this the SSH public key authentication can be used and the rsync command will run without a password.
All the following commands are executed within a Windows console. In a console (Start -> Run -> cmd) create and upload the key as described in SSH, change “user” and “server” as appropriate. If the file authorized_keys2 does not exist yet, simply copy id_dsa.pub to authorized_keys2 and upload it.
# ssh-keygen -t dsa -N ” # Creates a public and a private key # rsync user@server:.ssh/authorized_keys2 . # Copy the file locally from the server # cat id_dsa.pub >> authorized_keys2 # Or use an editor to add the key # rsync authorized_keys2 user@server:.ssh/ # Copy the file back to the server # del authorized_keys2 # Remove the local copy
Now test it with (in one line):
rsync -rv “/cygdrive/c/Documents and Settings/%USERNAME%/My Documents/” \ ‘user@server:My\ Documents/’
Automatic backup
Use a batch file to automate the backup and add the file in the scheduled tasks (Programs -> Accessories -> System Tools -> Scheduled Tasks). For example create the file backup.bat and replace user@server.
@ECHO OFF REM rsync the directory My Documents SETLOCAL SET CWRSYNCHOME=C:\PROGRAM FILES\CWRSYNC SET CYGWIN=nontsec SET CWOLDPATH=%PATH% REM uncomment the next line when using cygwin SET PATH=%CWRSYNCHOME%\BIN;%PATH% echo Press Control-C to abort rsync -av “/cygdrive/c/Documents and Settings/%USERNAME%/My Documents/” \ ‘user@server:My\ Documents/’ pause
SUDO
Sudo is a standard way to give users some administrative rights without giving out the root password. Sudo is very useful in a multi user environment with a mix of server and workstations. Simply call the command with sudo:
# sudo /etc/init.d/dhcpd restart # Run the rc script as root # sudo -u sysadmin whoami # Run cmd as an other user
Configuration
Sudo is configured in /etc/sudoers and must only be edited with visudo. The basic syntax is (the lists are comma separated):
user hosts = (runas) commands # In /etc/sudoers
* users one or more users or %group (like %wheel) to gain the rights
* hosts list of hosts (or ALL)
* runas list of users (or ALL) that the command rule can be run as. It is enclosed in ( )!
* commands list of commands (or ALL) that will be run as root or as (runas)
Additionally those keywords can be defined as alias, they are called User_Alias, Host_Alias, Runas_Alias and Cmnd_Alias. This is useful for larger setups. Here a sudoers example:
# cat /etc/sudoers # Host aliases are subnets or hostnames. Host_Alias DMZ = 212.118.81.40/28 Host_Alias DESKTOP = work1, work2
# User aliases are a list of users which can have the same rights User_Alias ADMINS = colin, luca, admin User_Alias DEVEL = joe, jack, julia Runas_Alias DBA = oracle,pgsql
# Command aliases define the full path of a list of commands Cmnd_Alias SYSTEM = /sbin/reboot,/usr/bin/kill,/sbin/halt,/sbin/shutdown,/etc/init.d/ Cmnd_Alias PW = /usr/bin/passwd [A-z]*, !/usr/bin/passwd root # Not root pwd! Cmnd_Alias DEBUG = /usr/sbin/tcpdump,/usr/bin/wireshark,/usr/bin/nmap
# The actual rules root,ADMINS ALL = (ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL # ADMINS can do anything w/o a password. DEVEL DESKTOP = (ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL # Developers have full right on desktops DEVEL DMZ = (ALL) NOPASSWD: DEBUG # Developers can debug the DMZ servers.
# User sysadmin can mess around in the DMZ servers with some commands. sysadmin DMZ = (ALL) NOPASSWD: SYSTEM,PW,DEBUG sysadmin ALL,!DMZ = (ALL) NOPASSWD: ALL # Can do anything outside the DMZ. %dba ALL = (DBA) ALL # Group dba can run as database user.
# anyone can mount/unmount a cd-rom on the desktop machines ALL DESKTOP = NOPASSWD: /sbin/mount /cdrom,/sbin/umount /cdrom
* Use -k mysecretpassword after aes-128-cbc to avoid the interactive password request. However note that this is highly insecure.
* Use aes-256-cbc instead of aes-128-cbc to get even stronger encryption. This uses also more CPU.
GPG
GnuPG is well known to encrypt and sign emails or any data. Furthermore gpg and also provides an advanced key management system. This section only covers files encryption, not email usage, signing or the Web-Of-Trust.
The simplest encryption is with a symmetric cipher. In this case the file is encrypted with a password and anyone who knows the password can decrypt it, thus the keys are not needed. Gpg adds an extention “.gpg” to the encrypted file names.
For more details see GPG Quick Starthttp://www.madboa.com/geek/gpg-quickstart and GPG/PGP Basicshttp://aplawrence.com/Basics/gpg.html and the gnupg documentationhttp://gnupg.org/documentation among others.
The private and public keys are the heart of asymmetric cryptography. What is important to remember:
* Your public key is used by others to encrypt files that only you as the receiver can decrypt (not even the one who encrypted the file can decrypt it). The public key is thus meant to be distributed.
* Your private key is encrypted with your passphrase and is used to decrypt files which were encrypted with your public key. The private key must be kept secure. Also if the key or passphrase is lost, so are all the files encrypted with your public key.
* The key files are called keyrings as they can contain more than one key.
First generate a key pair. The defaults are fine, however you will have to enter at least your full name and email and optionally a comment. The comment is useful to create more than one key with the same name and email. Also you should use a “passphrase”, not a simple password.
# gpg –gen-key # This can take a long time
The keys are stored in ~/.gnupg/ on Unix, on Windows they are typically stored in
C:/Documents and Settings/%USERNAME%/Application Data/gnupg/.
~/.gnupg/pubring.gpg # Contains your public keys and all others imported ~/.gnupg/secring.gpg # Can contain more than one private key
Short reminder on most used options:
* -e encrypt data
* -d decrypt data
* -r NAME encrypt for recipient NAME (or ‘Full Name’ or ‘email@domain’)
* -a create ascii armored output of a key
* -o use as output file
The examples use ‘Your Name’ and ‘Alice’ as the keys are referred to by the email or full name or partial name. For example I can use ‘Colin’ or ‘c@cb.vu’ for my key [Colin Barschel (cb.vu) ]. Encrypt for personal use only
No need to export/import any key for this. You have both already.
# gpg -e -r ‘Your Name’ file # Encrypt with your public key # gpg -o file -d file.gpg # Decrypt. Use -o or it goes to stdout
Encrypt – Decrypt with keys
First you need to export your public key for someone else to use it. And you need to import the public say from Alice to encrypt a file for her. You can either handle the keys in simple ascii files or use a public key server.
For example Alice export her public key and you import it, you can then encrypt a file for her. That is only Alice will be able to decrypt it.
# gpg -a -o alicekey.asc –export ‘Alice’ # Alice exported her key in ascii file. # gpg –send-keys –keyserver subkeys.pgp.net KEYID # Alice put her key on a server. # gpg –import alicekey.asc # You import her key into your pubring. # gpg –search-keys –keyserver subkeys.pgp.net ‘Alice’ # or get her key from a server.
Once the keys are imported it is very easy to encrypt or decrypt a file:
# gpg -e -r ‘Alice’ file # Encrypt the file for Alice. # gpg -d file.gpg -o file # Decrypt a file encrypted by Alice for you.
Key administration
# gpg –list-keys # list public keys and see the KEYIDS The KEYID follows the ‘/’ e.g. for: pub 1024D/D12B77CE the KEYID is D12B77CE # gpg –gen-revoke ‘Your Name’ # generate revocation certificate # gpg –list-secret-keys # list private keys # gpg –delete-keys NAME # delete a public key from local key ring # gpg –delete-secret-key NAME # delete a secret key from local key ring # gpg –fingerprint KEYID # Show the fingerprint of the key # gpg –edit-key KEYID # Edit key (e.g sign or add/del email)
Encrypt Partitions
Linux with LUKS | Linux dm-crypt only | FreeBSD GELI | FBSD pwd only
There are (many) other alternative methods to encrypt disks, I only show here the methods I know and use. Keep in mind that the security is only good as long the OS has not been tempered with. An intruder could easily record the password from the keyboard events. Furthermore the data is freely accessible when the partition is attached and will not prevent an intruder to have access to it in this state. Linux
Those instructions use the Linux dm-crypt (device-mapper) facility available on the 2.6 kernel. In this example, lets encrypt the partition /dev/sdc1, it could be however any other partition or disk, or USB or a file based partition created with losetup. In this case we would use /dev/loop0. See file image partition. The device mapper uses labels to identify a partition. We use sdc1 in this example, but it could be any string. dm-crypt with LUKS
LUKS with dm-crypt has better encryption and makes it possible to have multiple passphrase for the same partition or to change the password easily. To test if LUKS is available, simply type # cryptsetup –help, if nothing about LUKS shows up, use the instructions below Without LUKS. First create a partition if necessary: fdisk /dev/sdc. Create encrypted partition
# dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/sdc1 # Optional. For paranoids only (takes days) # cryptsetup -y luksFormat /dev/sdc1 # This destroys any data on sdc1 # cryptsetup luksOpen /dev/sdc1 sdc1 # mkfs.ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 # create ext3 file system # mount -t ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 /mnt # umount /mnt # cryptsetup luksClose sdc1 # Detach the encrypted partition
# cryptsetup -y create sdc1 /dev/sdc1 # or any other partition like /dev/loop0 # dmsetup ls # check it, will display: sdc1 (254, 0) # mkfs.ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 # This is done only the first time! # mount -t ext3 /dev/mapper/sdc1 /mnt # umount /mnt/ # cryptsetup remove sdc1 # Detach the encrypted partition
Do exactly the same (without the mkfs part!) to re-attach the partition. If the password is not correct, the mount command will fail. In this case simply remove the map sdc1 (cryptsetup remove sdc1) and create it again. FreeBSD
The two popular FreeBSD disk encryption modules are gbde and geli. I now use geli because it is faster and also uses the crypto device for hardware acceleration. See The FreeBSD handbook Chapter 18.6http://www.freebsd.org/handbook/disks-encrypting.html for all the details. The geli module must be loaded or compiled into the kernel:
options GEOM_ELI device crypto # or as module: # echo ‘geom_eli_load=”YES”‘ >> /boot/loader.conf # or do: kldload geom_eli
Use password and key
I use those settings for a typical disk encryption, it uses a passphrase AND a key to encrypt the master key. That is you need both the password and the generated key /root/ad1.key to attach the partition. The master key is stored inside the partition and is not visible. See below for typical USB or file based image. Create encrypted partition
# dd if=/dev/random of=/root/ad1.key bs=64 count=1 # this key encrypts the mater key # geli init -s 4096 -K /root/ad1.key /dev/ad1 # -s 8192 is also OK for disks # geli attach -k /root/ad1.key /dev/ad1 # DO make a backup of /root/ad1.key # dd if=/dev/random of=/dev/ad1.eli bs=1m # Optional and takes a long time # newfs /dev/ad1.eli # Create file system # mount /dev/ad1.eli /mnt
Attach
# geli attach -k /root/ad1.key /dev/ad1 # fsck -ny -t ffs /dev/ad1.eli # In doubt check the file system # mount /dev/ad1.eli /mnt
Detach
The detach procedure is done automatically on shutdown.
# umount /mnt # geli detach /dev/ad1.eli
/etc/fstab
The encrypted partition can be configured to be mounted with /etc/fstab. The password will be prompted when booting. The following settings are required for this example:
It is more convenient to encrypt a USB stick or file based image with a passphrase only and no key. In this case it is not necessary to carry the additional key file around. The procedure is very much the same as above, simply without the key file. Let’s encrypt a file based image /cryptedfile of 1 GB.
So called SSL/TLS certificates are cryptographic public key certificates and are composed of a public and a private key. The certificates are used to authenticate the endpoints and encrypt the data. They are used for example on a web server (https) or mail server (imaps). Procedure
* We need a certificate authority to sign our certificate. This step is usually provided by a vendor like Thawte, Verisign, etc., however we can also create our own.
* Create a certificate signing request. This request is like an unsigned certificate (the public part) and already contains all necessary information. The certificate request is normally sent to the authority vendor for signing. This step also creates the private key on the local machine.
* Sign the certificate with the certificate authority.
* If necessary join the certificate and the key in a single file to be used by the application (web server, mail server etc.).
Configure OpenSSL
We use /usr/local/certs as directory for this example check or edit /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf accordingly to your settings so you know where the files will be created. Here are the relevant part of openssl.cnf:
[ CA_default ] dir = /usr/local/certs/CA # Where everything is kept certs = $dir/certs # Where the issued certs are kept crl_dir = $dir/crl # Where the issued crl are kept database = $dir/index.txt # database index file.
Make sure the directories exist or create them
# mkdir -p /usr/local/certs/CA # cd /usr/local/certs/CA # mkdir certs crl newcerts private # echo “01″ > serial # Only if serial does not exist # touch index.txt
If you intend to get a signed certificate from a vendor, you only need a certificate signing request (CSR). This CSR will then be signed by the vendor for a limited time (e.g. 1 year). Create a certificate authority
If you do not have a certificate authority from a vendor, you’ll have to create your own. This step is not necessary if one intend to use a vendor to sign the request. To make a certificate authority (CA):
To make a new certificate (for mail server or web server for example), first create a request certificate with its private key. If your application do not support encrypted private key (for example UW-IMAP does not), then disable encryption with -nodes.
# openssl req -new -keyout newkey.pem -out newreq.pem \ -config /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf # openssl req -nodes -new -keyout newkey.pem -out newreq.pem \ -config /etc/ssl/openssl.cnf # No encryption for the key
Keep this created CSR (newreq.pem) as it can be signed again at the next renewal, the signature onlt will limit the validity of the certificate. This process also created the private key newkey.pem.
Sign the certificate
The certificate request has to be signed by the CA to be valid, this step is usually done by the vendor. Note: replace “servername” with the name of your server in the next commands.
Now servernamekey.pem is the private key and servernamecert.pem is the server certificate.
Create united certificate
The IMAP server wants to have both private key and server certificate in the same file. And in general, this is also easier to handle, but the file has to be kept securely!. Apache also can deal with it well. Create a file servername.pem containing both the certificate and key.
* Open the private key (servernamekey.pem) with a text editor and copy the private key into the “servername.pem” file.
* Do the same with the server certificate (servernamecert.pem).
The final servername.pem file should look like this:
What we have now in the directory /usr/local/certs/:
* CA/private/cakey.pem (CA server private key)
* CA/cacert.pem (CA server public key)
* certs/servernamekey.pem (server private key)
* certs/servernamecert.pem (server signed certificate)
* certs/servername.pem (server certificate with private key)
Keep the private key secure!
View certificate information
To view the certificate information simply do:
# openssl x509 -text -in servernamecert.pem # View the certificate info # openssl req -noout -text -in server.csr # View the request info # openssl s_client -connect cb.vu:443 # Check a web server certificate
CVS
Server setup | CVS test | SSH tunneling | CVS usage
Server setup
Initiate the CVS
Decide where the main repository will rest and create a root cvs. For example /usr/local/cvs (as root):
# mkdir -p /usr/local/cvs # setenv CVSROOT /usr/local/cvs # Set CVSROOT to the new location (local) # cvs init # Creates all internal CVS config files # cd /root # cvs checkout CVSROOT # Checkout the config files to modify them # cd CVSROOT edit config ( fine as it is) # cvs commit config cat >> writers # Create a writers file (optionally also readers) colin ^D # Use [Control][D] to quit the edit # cvs add writers # Add the file writers into the repository # cvs edit checkoutlist # cat >> checkoutlist writers ^D # Use [Control][D] to quit the edit # cvs commit # Commit all the configuration changes
Add a readers file if you want to differentiate read and write permissions Note: Do not (ever) edit files directly into the main cvs, but rather checkout the file, modify it and check it in. We did this with the file writers to define the write access.
There are three popular ways to access the CVS at this point. The first two don’t need any further configuration. See the examples on CVSROOT below for how to use them:
* Direct local access to the file system. The user(s) need sufficient file permission to access the CS directly and there is no further authentication in addition to the OS login. However this is only useful if the repository is local.
* Remote access with ssh with the ext protocol. Any use with an ssh shell account and read/write permissions on the CVS server can access the CVS directly with ext over ssh without any additional tunnel. There is no server process running on the CVS for this to work. The ssh login does the authentication.
* Remote access with pserver. This is the preferred use for larger user base as the users are authenticated by the CVS pserver with a dedicated password database, there is therefore no need for local users accounts. This setup is explained below.
Network setup with inetd
The CVS can be run locally only if a network access is not needed. For a remote access, the daemon inetd can start the pserver with the following line in /etc/inetd.conf (/etc/xinetd.d/cvs on SuSE):
It is a good idea to block the cvs port from the Internet with the firewall and use an ssh tunnel to access the repository remotely.
Separate authentication
It is possible to have cvs users which are not part of the OS (no local users). This is actually probably wanted too from the security point of view. Simply add a file named passwd (in the CVSROOT directory) containing the users login and password in the crypt format. This is can be done with the apache htpasswd tool.
Note: This passwd file is the only file which has to be edited directly in the CVSROOT directory. Also it won’t be checked out. More info with htpasswd –help
Now add :cvs at the end of each line to tell the cvs server to change the user to cvs (or whatever your cvs server is running under). It looks like this:
Test the login as normal user (for example here me)
# cvs -d :pserver:colin@192.168.50.254:/usr/local/cvs login Logging in to :pserver:colin@192.168.50.254:2401/usr/local/cvs CVS password:
CVSROOT variable
This is an environment variable used to specify the location of the repository we’re doing operations on. For local use, it can be just set to the directory of the repository. For use over the network, the transport protocol must be specified. Set the CVSROOT variable with setenv CVSROOT string on a csh, tcsh shell, or with export CVSROOT=string on a sh, bash shell.
# setenv CVSROOT :pserver:@:/cvsdirectory For example: # setenv CVSROOT /usr/local/cvs # Used locally only # setenv CVSROOT :local:/usr/local/cvs # Same as above # setenv CVSROOT :ext:user@cvsserver:/usr/local/cvs # Direct access with SSH # setenv CVS_RSH ssh # for the ext access # setenv CVSROOT :pserver:user@cvsserver.254:/usr/local/cvs # network with pserver
When the login succeeded one can import a new project into the repository: cd into your project root directory
Where MyProject is the name of the new project in the repository (used later to checkout). Cvs will import the current directory content into the new project.
We need 2 shells for this. On the first shell we connect to the cvs server with ssh and port-forward the cvs connection. On the second shell we use the cvs normally as if it where running locally.
on shell 1:
# ssh -L2401:localhost:2401 colin@cvs_server # Connect directly to the CVS server. Or: # ssh -L2401:cvs_server:2401 colin@gateway # Use a gateway to reach the CVS
on shell 2:
# setenv CVSROOT :pserver:colin@localhost:/usr/local/cvs # cvs login Logging in to :pserver:colin@localhost:2401/usr/local/cvs CVS password: # cvs checkout MyProject/src
CVS commands and usage
Import
The import command is used to add a whole directory, it must be run from within the directory to be imported. Say the directory /devel/ contains all files and subdirectories to be imported. The directory name on the CVS (the module) will be called “myapp”.
# cvs import [options] directory-name vendor-tag release-tag # cd /devel # Must be inside the project to import it # cvs import myapp Company R1_0 # Release tag can be anything in one word
After a while a new directory “/devel/tools/” was added and it has to be imported too.
# cd /devel/tools # cvs import myapp/tools Company R1_0
Checkout update add commit
# cvs co myapp/tools # Will only checkout the directory tools # cvs co -r R1_1 myapp # Checkout myapp at release R1_1 (is sticky) # cvs -q -d update -P # A typical CVS update # cvs update -A # Reset any sticky tag (or date, option) # cvs add newfile # Add a new file # cvs add -kb newfile # Add a new binary file # cvs commit file1 file2 # Commit the two files only # cvs commit -m “message” # Commit all changes done with a message
Create a patch
It is best to create and apply a patch from the working development directory related to the project, or from within the source directory.
# cd /devel/project # diff -Naur olddir newdir > patchfile # Create a patch from a directory or a file # diff -Naur oldfile newfile > patchfile
Apply a patch
Sometimes it is necessary to strip a directory level from the patch, depending how it was created. In case of difficulties, simply look at the first lines of the patch and try -p0, -p1 or -p2.
# cd /devel/project # patch –dry-run -p0 < patchfile # Test the path without applying it # patch -p0 < patchfile # patch -p1 < patchfile # strip off the 1st level from the path
SVN
Server setup | SVN+SSH | SVN over http | SVN usage
Subversion (SVN)http://subversion.tigris.org/ is a version control system designed to be the successor of CVS (Concurrent Versions System). The concept is similar to CVS, but many shortcomings where improved. See also the SVN bookhttp://svnbook.red-bean.com/en/1.4/. Server setup
The initiation of the repository is fairly simple (here for example /home/svn/ must exist):
Now the access to the repository is made possible with:
* file:// Direct file system access with the svn client with. This requires local permissions on the file system.
* svn:// or svn+ssh:// Remote access with the svnserve server (also over SSH). This requires local permissions on the file system.
* http:// Remote access with webdav using apache. No local users are necessary for this method.
Using the local file system, it is now possible to import and then check out an existing project. Unlike with CVS it is not necessary to cd into the project directory, simply give the full path:
As with the local file access, every user needs an ssh access to the server (with a local account) and also read/write access. This method might be suitable for a small group. All users could belong to a subversion group which owns the repository, for example:
Remote access over http (https) is the only good solution for a larger user group. This method uses the apache authentication, not the local accounts. This is a typical but small apache configuration:
LoadModule dav_module modules/mod_dav.so LoadModule dav_svn_module modules/mod_dav_svn.so LoadModule authz_svn_module modules/mod_authz_svn.so # Only for access control
DAV svn # any “/svn/foo” URL will map to a repository /home/svn/foo SVNParentPath /home/svn AuthType Basic AuthName “Subversion repository” AuthzSVNAccessFile /etc/apache2/svn.acl AuthUserFile /etc/apache2/svn-passwd Require valid-user
The apache server needs full access to the repository:
# chown -R www:www /home/svn
Create a user with htpasswd2:
# htpasswd -c /etc/svn-passwd user1 # -c creates the file
Access control svn.acl example
# Default it read access. “* =” would be default no access [/] * = r [groups] project1-developers = joe, jack, jane # Give write access to the developers [project1:] @project1-developers = rw
SVN commands and usage
See also the Subversion Quick Reference Cardhttp://www.cs.put.poznan.pl/csobaniec/Papers/svn-refcard.pdf. Tortoise SVNhttp://tortoisesvn.tigris.org is a nice Windows interface. Import
A new project, that is a directory with some files, is imported into the repository with the import command. Import is also used to add a directory with its content to an existing project.
# svn help import # Get help for any command # Add a new directory (with content) into the src dir on project1 # svn import /project1/newdir http://host.url/svn/project1/trunk/src -m ‘add newdir’
Typical SVN commands
# svn co http://host.url/svn/project1/trunk # Checkout the most recent version # Tags and branches are created by copying # svn mkdir http://host.url/svn/project1/tags/ # Create the tags directory # svn copy -m “Tag rc1 rel.” http://host.url/svn/project1/trunk \ http://host.url/svn/project1/tags/1.0rc1 # svn status [--verbose] # Check files status into working dir # svn add src/file.h src/file.cpp # Add two files # svn commit -m ‘Added new class file’ # Commit the changes with a message # svn ls http://host.url/svn/project1/tags/ # List all tags # svn move foo.c bar.c # Move (rename) files # svn delete some_old_file # Delete files
Useful Commands
less | vi | mail | tar | dd | screen | find | Miscellaneous
less
The less command displays a text document on the console. It is present on most installation.
# less unixtoolbox.xhtml
Some important commands are (^N stands for [control]-[N]):
* h H good help on display
* f ^F ^V SPACE Forward one window (or N lines).
* b ^B ESC-v Backward one window (or N lines).
* F Forward forever; like “tail -f”.
* /pattern Search forward for (N-th) matching line.
* ?pattern Search backward for (N-th) matching line.
* n Repeat previous search (for N-th occurrence).
* N Repeat previous search in reverse direction.
* q quit
vi
Vi is present on ANY Linux/Unix installation (not gentoo?) and it is therefore useful to know some basic commands. There are two modes: command mode and insertion mode. The commands mode is accessed with [ESC], the insertion mode with i. Use : help if you are lost.
The editors nano and pico are usually available too and are easier (IMHO) to use. Quit
* :w newfilename save the file to newfilename
* :wq or save and quit
* :q! quit without saving
Search and move
* /string Search forward for string
* ?string Search back for string
* n Search for next instance of string
* N Search for previous instance of string
* { Move a paragraph back
* } Move a paragraph forward
* 1G Move to the first line of the file
* nG Move to the n th line of the file
* G Move to the last line of the file
* :%s/OLD/NEW/g Search and replace every occurrence
Delete text
* dd delete current line
* D Delete to the end of the line
* dw Delete word
* x Delete character
* u Undo last
* U Undo all changes to current line
mail
The mail command is a basic application to read and send email, it is usually installed. To send an email simply type “mail user@domain”. The first line is the subject, then the mail content. Terminate and send the email with a single dot (.) in a new line. Example:
# mail c@cb.vu Subject: Your text is full of typos “For a moment, nothing happened. Then, after a second or so, nothing continued to happen.” . EOT #
This is also working with a pipe:
# echo “This is the mail body” | mail c@cb.vu
This is also a simple way to test the mail server.
tar
The command tar (tape archive) creates and extracts archives of file and directories. The archive .tar is uncompressed, a compressed archive has the extension .tgz or .tar.gz (zip) or .tbz (bzip2). Do not use absolute path when creating an archive, you probably want to unpack it somewhere else. Some typical commands are: Create
# cd / # tar -cf home.tar home/ # archive the whole /home directory (c for create) # tar -czf home.tgz home/ # same with zip compression # tar -cjf home.tbz home/ # same with bzip2 compression
Only include one (or two) directories from a tree, but keep the relative structure. For example archive /usr/local/etc and /usr/local/www and the first directory in the archive should be local/.
# tar -C /usr -czf local.tgz local/etc local/www # tar -C /usr -xzf local.tgz # To untar the local dir into /usr # cd /usr; tar -xzf local.tgz # Is the same as above
Extract
# tar -tzf home.tgz # look inside the archive without extracting (list) # tar -xf home.tar # extract the archive here (x for extract) # tar -xzf home.tgz # same with zip compression # tar -xjf home.tbz # same with bzip2 compression # tar -xjf home.tbz home/colin/file.txt # Restore a single file
More advanced
# tar c dir/ | gzip | ssh user@remote ‘dd of=dir.tgz’ # arch dir/ and store remotely. # tar cvf – `find . -print` > backup.tar # arch the current directory. # tar -cf – -C /etc . | tar xpf – -C /backup/etc # Copy directories # tar -cf – -C /etc . | ssh user@remote tar xpf – -C /backup/etc # Remote copy. # tar -czf home.tgz –exclude ‘*.o’ –exclude ‘tmp/’ home/
dd
The program dd (disk dump or destroy disk or see the meaning of dd) is used to copy partitions and disks and for other copy tricks. Typical usage:
# dd if= of= bs= conv=
Important conv options:
* notrunc do not truncate the output file, all zeros will be written as zeros.
* noerror continue after read errors (e.g. bad blocks)
* sync pad every input block with Nulls to ibs-size
The default byte size is 512 (one block). The MBR, where the partition table is located, is on the first block, the first 63 blocks of a disk are empty. Larger byte sizes are faster to copy but require also more memory. Backup and restore
# dd if=/dev/hda of=/dev/hdc bs=16065b # Copy disk to disk (same size) # dd if=/dev/sda7 of=/home/root.img bs=4096 conv=notrunc,noerror # Backup / # dd if=/home/root.img of=/dev/sda7 bs=4096 conv=notrunc,noerror # Restore / # dd bs=1M if=/dev/ad4s3e | gzip -c > ad4s3e.gz # Zip the backup # gunzip -dc ad4s3e.gz | dd of=/dev/ad0s3e bs=1M # Restore the zip # dd bs=1M if=/dev/ad4s3e | gzip | ssh eedcoba@fry ‘dd of=ad4s3e.gz’ # also remote # gunzip -dc ad4s3e.gz | ssh eedcoba@host ‘dd of=/dev/ad0s3e bs=1M’ # dd if=/dev/ad0 of=/dev/ad2 skip=1 seek=1 bs=4k conv=noerror # Skip MBR # This is necessary if the destination (ad2) is smaller.
Recover
The command dd will read every single block of the partition, even the blocks. In case of problems it is better to use the option conv=sync,noerror so dd will skip the bad block and write zeros at the destination. Accordingly it is important to set the block size equal or smaller than the disk block size. A 1k size seems safe, set it with bs=1k. If a disk has bad sectors and the data should be recovered from a partition, create an image file with dd, mount the image and copy the content to a new disk. With the option noerror, dd will skip the bad sectors and write zeros instead, thus only the data contained in the bad sectors will be lost.
# dd if=/dev/hda of=/dev/null bs=1m # Check for bad blocks # dd bs=1k if=/dev/hda1 conv=sync,noerror,notrunc | gzip | ssh \ # Send to remote root@fry ‘dd of=hda1.gz bs=1k’ # dd bs=1k if=/dev/hda1 conv=sync,noerror,notrunc of=hda1.img # Store into an image # mount -o loop /hda1.img /mnt # Mount the image # rsync -ax /mnt/ /newdisk/ # Copy on a new disk # dd if=/dev/hda of=/dev/hda # Refresh the magnetic state # The above is useful to refresh a disk. It is perfectly safe, but must be unmounted.
Delete
# dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/hdc # Delete full disk # dd if=/dev/urandom of=/dev/hdc # Delete full disk better # kill -USR1 PID # View dd progress (Linux) # kill -INFO PID # View dd progress (FreeBSD)
MBR tricks
The MBR contains the boot loader and the partition table and is 512 bytes small. The first 446 are for the boot loader, the bytes 446 to 512 are for the partition table.
# dd if=/dev/sda of=/mbr_sda.bak bs=512 count=1 # Backup the full MBR # dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/sda bs=512 count=1 # Delete MBR and partition table # dd if=/mbr_sda.bak of=/dev/sda bs=512 count=1 # Restore the full MBR # dd if=/mbr_sda.bak of=/dev/sda bs=446 count=1 # Restore only the boot loader # dd if=/mbr_sda.bak of=/dev/sda bs=1 count=64 skip=446 seek=446 # Restore partition table
screen
Screen has two main functionalities:
* Run multiple terminal session within a single terminal.
* A started program is decoupled from the real terminal and can thus run in the background. The real terminal can be closed and reattached later.
Short start example
start screen with:
# screen
Within the screen session we can start a long lasting program (like top).
# top
Now detach with Ctrl-a Ctrl-d. Reattach the terminal with:
# screen -R -D
In detail this means: If a session is running, then reattach. If necessary detach and logout remotely first. If it was not running create it and notify the user. Or:
# screen -x
Attach to a running screen in a multi display mode. The console is thus shared among multiple users. Very useful for team work/debug!
Screen commands (within screen)
All screen commands start with Ctrl-a.
* Ctrl-a ? help and summary of functions
* Ctrl-a c create an new window (terminal)
* Ctrl-a Ctrl-n and Ctrl-a Ctrl-p to switch to the next or previous window in the list, by number.
* Ctrl-a Ctrl-N where N is a number from 0 to 9, to switch to the corresponding window.
* Ctrl-a ” to get a navigable list of running windows
* Ctrl-a a to clear a missed Ctrl-a
* Ctrl-a Ctrl-d to disconnect and leave the session running in the background
* Ctrl-a x lock the screen terminal with a password
The screen session is terminated when the program within the running terminal is closed and you logout from the terminal.
Find
Some important options:
* -x (on BSD) -xdev (on Linux) Stay on the same file system (dev in fstab).
* -exec cmd {} \; Execute the command and replace {} with the full path
* -iname Like -name but is case insensitive
* -ls Display information about the file (like ls -la)
* -size n n is +-n (k M G T P)
* -cmin n File’s status was last changed n minutes ago.
# find . -type f ! -perm -444 # Find files not readable by all # find . -type d ! -perm -111 # Find dirs not accessible by all # find /home/user/ -cmin 10 -print # Files created or modified in the last 10 min. # find . -name ‘*.[ch]‘ | xargs grep -E ‘expr’ # Search ‘expr’ in this dir and below. # find / -name “*.core” | xargs rm # Find core dumps and delete them (also try core.*) # find / -name “*.core” -print -exec rm {} \; # Other syntax # Find images and create an archive, iname is not case sensitive. -r for append # find . \( -iname “*.png” -o -iname “*.jpg” \) -print -exec tar -rf images.tar {} \; # find . -type f -name “*.txt” ! -name README.txt -print # Exclude README.txt files # find /var/ -size +10M -exec ls -lh {} \; # Find large files > 10 MB # find /var/ -size +10M -ls # This is simpler # find . -size +10M -size -50M -print # find /usr/ports/ -name work -type d -print -exec rm -rf {} \; # Clean the ports # Find files with SUID; those file are vulnerable and must be kept secure # find / -type f -user root -perm -4000 -exec ls -l {} \;
Be careful with xarg or exec as it might or might not honor quotings and can return wrong results when files or directories contain spaces. In doubt use “-print0 | xargs -0″ instead of “| xargs”. The option -print0 must be the last in the find command. See this nice mini tutorial for findhttp://www.hccfl.edu/pollock/Unix/FindCmd.htm.
# find . -type f | xargs ls -l # Will not work with spaces in names # find . -type f -print0 | xargs -0 ls -l # Will work with spaces in names # find . -type f -exec ls -l ‘{}’ \; # Or use quotes ‘{}’ with -exec
Miscellaneous
# which command # Show full path name of command # time command # See how long a command takes to execute # time cat # Use time as stopwatch. Ctrl-c to stop # set | grep $USER # List the current environment # cal -3 # Display a three month calendar # date [-u|--utc|--universal] [MMDDhhmm[[CC]YY][.ss]] # date 10022155 # Set date and time # whatis grep # Display a short info on the command or word # whereis java # Search path and standard directories for word # setenv varname value # Set env. variable varname to value (csh/tcsh) # export varname=”value” # set env. variable varname to value (sh/ksh/bash) # pwd # Print working directory # mkdir -p /path/to/dir # no error if existing, make parent dirs as needed # mkdir -p project/{bin,src,obj,doc/{html,man,pdf},debug/some/more/dirs} # rmdir /path/to/dir # Remove directory # rm -rf /path/to/dir # Remove directory and its content (force) # cp -la /dir1 /dir2 # Archive and hard link files instead of copy # cp -lpR /dir1 /dir2 # Same for FreeBSD # cp unixtoolbox.xhtml{,.bak} # Short way to copy the file with a new extension # mv /dir1 /dir2 # Rename a directory # ls -1 # list one file per line
Check file hashes with openssl. This is a nice alternative to the commands md5sum or sha1sum (FreeBSD uses md5 and sha1) which are not always installed.
# openssl md5 file.tar.gz # Generate an md5 checksum from file # openssl sha1 file.tar.gz # Generate an sha1 checksum from file # openssl rmd160 file.tar.gz # Generate a RIPEMD-160 checksum from file
Install Software
List installed packages
# rpm -qa # List installed packages (RH, SuSE, RPM based) # dpkg -l # Debian, Ubuntu # pkg_info # FreeBSD list all installed packages # pkg_info -W smbd # FreeBSD show which package smbd belongs to # pkginfo # Solaris
Add/remove software
Front ends: yast2/yast for SuSE, redhat-config-packages for Red Hat.
# apt-get update # First update the package lists # apt-get install emacs # Install the package emacs # dpkg –remove emacs # Remove the package emacs # dpkg -S file # find what package a file belongs to
Gentoo
Gentoo uses emerge as the heart of its “Portage” package management system.
# emerge –sync # First sync the local portage tree # emerge -u packagename # Install or upgrade a package # emerge -C packagename # Remove the package # revdep-rebuild # Repair dependencies
# pkg_add -r rsync # Fetch and install rsync. # pkg_delete /var/db/pkg/rsync-xx # Delete the rsync package
Set where the packages are fetched from with the PACKAGESITE variable. For example:
# export PACKAGESITE=ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages/Latest/ # or ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/ports/i386/packages-6-stable/Latest/
FreeBSD ports
The port tree /usr/ports/ is a collection of software ready to compile and install. The ports are updated with the program portsnap.
# portsnap fetch extract # Create the tree when running the first time # portsnap fetch update # Update the port tree # cd /usr/ports/net/rsync/ # Select the package to install # make install distclean # Install and cleanup (also see man ports) # make package # Make a binary package for the port
Library path
Due to complex dependencies and runtime linking, programs are difficult to copy to an other system or distribution. However for small programs with little dependencies, the missing libraries can be copied over. The runtime libraries (and the missing one) are checked with ldd and managed with ldconfig.
# ldd /usr/bin/rsync # List all needed runtime libraries # ldconfig -n /path/to/libs/ # Add a path to the shared libraries directories # ldconfig -m /path/to/libs/ # FreeBSD # LD_LIBRARY_PATH # The variable set the link library path
Convert Media
Sometimes one simply need to convert a video, audio file or document to another format. Text encoding
Text encoding can get totally wrong, specially when the language requires special characters like àäç. The command iconv can convert from one encoding to an other.
# iconv -f -t # iconv -f ISO8859-1 -t UTF-8 -o file.input > file_utf8 # iconv -l # List known coded character sets
Without the -f option, iconv will use the local char-set, which is usually fine if the document displays well. Unix – DOS newlines
Convert DOS (CR/LF) to Unix (LF) newlines and back within a Unix shell. See also dos2unix and unix2dos if you have them.
# sed ‘s/.$//’ dosfile.txt > unixfile.txt # DOS to UNIX # awk ‘{sub(/\r$/,”");print}’ dosfile.txt > unixfile.txt # DOS to UNIX # awk ‘{sub(/$/,”\r”);print}’ unixfile.txt > dosfile.txt # UNIX to DOS
Convert Unix to DOS newlines within a Windows environment. Use sed or awk from mingw or cygwin.
# sed -n p unixfile.txt > dosfile.txt # awk 1 unixfile.txt > dosfile.txt # UNIX to DOS (with a cygwin shell)
PDF to Jpeg and concatenate PDF files
Convert a PDF document with gs (GhostScript) to jpeg (or png) images for each page. Also much shorter with convert (from ImageMagick or GraphicsMagick).
# gs -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -sDEVICE=jpeg -r150 -dTextAlphaBits=4 -dGraphicsAlphaBits=4 \ -dMaxStripSize=8192 -sOutputFile=unixtoolbox_%d.jpg unixtoolbox.pdf # convert unixtoolbox.pdf unixtoolbox-%03d.png # convert *.jpeg images.pdf # Create a simple PDF with all pictures
Ghostscript can also concatenate multiple pdf files into a single one. This only works well if the PDF files are “well behaved”.
# gs -q -sPAPERSIZE=a4 -dNOPAUSE -dBATCH -sDEVICE=pdfwrite -sOutputFile=all.pdf \ file1.pdf file2.pdf … # On Windows use ‘#’ instead of ‘=’
Convert video
Compress the Canon digicam video with an mpeg4 codec and repair the crappy sound.
The program cdparanoiahttp://xiph.org/paranoia/ can save the audio tracks (FreeBSD port in audio/cdparanoia/), oggenc can encode in Ogg Vorbis format, lame converts to mp3.
# cdparanoia -B # Copy the tracks to wav files in current dir # lame -b 256 in.wav out.mp3 # Encode in mp3 256 kb/s # for i in *.wav; do lame -b 256 $i `basename $i .wav`.mp3; done # oggenc in.wav -b 256 out.ogg # Encode in Ogg Vorbis 256 kb/s
Printing
Print with lpr
# lpr unixtoolbox.ps # Print on default printer # export PRINTER=hp4600 # Change the default printer # lpr -Php4500 #2 unixtoolbox.ps # Use printer hp4500 and print 2 copies # lpr -o Duplex=DuplexNoTumble … # Print duplex along the long side # lpr -o PageSize=A4,Duplex=DuplexNoTumble …
# lpq # Check the queue on default printer # lpq -l -Php4500 # Queue on printer hp4500 with verbose # lprm – # Remove all users jobs on default printer # lprm -Php4500 3186 # Remove job 3186. Find job nbr with lpq # lpc status # List all available printers # lpc status hp4500 # Check if printer is online and queue length
Some devices are not postscript and will print garbage when fed with a pdf file. This might be solved with:
# psql -d template1 -U pgsql > alter user pgsql with password ‘pgsql_password’; # Use username instead of “pgsql”
Create user and database
The commands createuser, dropuser, createdb and dropdb are convenient shortcuts equivalent to the SQL commands. The new user is bob with database bobdb ; use as root with pgsql the database super user:
# createuser -U pgsql -P bob # -P will ask for password # createdb -U pgsql -O bob bobdb # new bobdb is owned by bob # dropdb bobdb # Delete database bobdb # dropuser bob # Delete user bob
The general database authentication mechanism is configured in pg_hba.conf Grant remote access
The file $PGSQL_DATA_D/postgresql.conf specifies the address to bind to. Typically listen_addresses = ‘*’ for Postgres 8.x.
The file $PGSQL_DATA_D/pg_hba.conf defines the access control. Examples:
# TYPE DATABASE USER IP-ADDRESS IP-MASK METHOD host bobdb bob 212.117.81.42 255.255.255.255 password host all all 0.0.0.0/0 password
Backup and restore
The backups and restore are done with the user pgsql or postgres. Backup and restore a single database:
# mysql -u root mysql mysql> UPDATE USER SET PASSWORD=PASSWORD(“newpassword”) where user=’root’; mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES; # Use username instead of “root” mysql> quit
Create user and database
# mysql -u root mysql mysql> CREATE DATABASE bobdb; mysql> GRANT ALL ON *.* TO ‘bob’@'%’ IDENTIFIED BY ‘pwd’; # Use localhost instead of % # to restrict the network access mysql> DROP DATABASE bobdb; # Delete database mysql> DROP USER bob; # Delete user mysql> DELETE FROM mysql.user WHERE user=’bob and host=’hostname’; # Alt. command mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES;
Grant remote access
Remote access is typically permitted for a database, and not all databases. The file /etc/my.cnf contains the IP address to bind to. Typically comment the line bind-address = out.
# mysql -u root mysql mysql> GRANT ALL ON bobdb.* TO bob@’xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx’ IDENTIFIED BY ‘PASSWORD’; mysql> REVOKE GRANT OPTION ON foo.* FROM bar@’xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx’; mysql> FLUSH PRIVILEGES; # Use ‘hostname’ or also ‘%’ for full access
Here is “secret” the mysql root password, there is no space after -p. When the -p option is used alone (w/o password), the password is asked at the command prompt.
SQLite
SQLitehttp://www.sqlite.org is a small powerful self-contained, serverless, zero-configuration SQL database. Dump and restore
It can be useful to dump and restore an SQLite database. For example you can edit the dump file to change a column attribute or type and then restore the database. This is easier than messing with SQL commands. Use the command sqlite3 for a 3.x database.
A disk quota allows to limit the amount of disk space and/or the number of files a user or (or member of group) can use. The quotas are allocated on a per-file system basis and are enforced by the kernel. Linux setup
The quota tools package usually needs to be installed, it contains the command line tools.
Activate the user quota in the fstab and remount the partition. If the partition is busy, either all locked files must be closed, or the system must be rebooted. Add usrquota to the fstab mount options, for example:
/dev/sda2 /home reiserfs rw,acl,user_xattr,usrquota 1 1 # mount -o remount /home # mount # Check if usrquota is active, otherwise reboot
Initialize the quota.user file with quotacheck.
# quotacheck -vum /home # chmod 644 /home/aquota.user # To let the users check their own quota
Activate the quota either with the provided script (e.g. /etc/init.d/quotad on SuSE) or with quotaon:
quotaon -vu /home
Check that the quota is active with:
quota -v
FreeBSD setup
The quota tools are part of the base system, however the kernel needs the option quota. If it is not there, add it and recompile the kernel.
options QUOTA
As with Linux, add the quota to the fstab options (userquota, not usrquota):
/dev/ad0s1d /home ufs rw,noatime,userquota 2 2 # mount /home # To remount the partition
Enable disk quotas in /etc/rc.conf and start the quota.
# grep quotas /etc/rc.conf enable_quotas=”YES” # turn on quotas on startup (or NO). check_quotas=”YES” # Check quotas on startup (or NO). # /etc/rc.d/quota start
Assign quota limits
The quotas are not limited per default (set to 0). The limits are set with edquota for single users. A quota can be also duplicated to many users. The file structure is different between the quota implementations, but the principle is the same: the values of blocks and inodes can be limited. Only change the values of soft and hard. If not specified, the blocks are 1k. The grace period is set with edquota -t. For example:
# edquota -u colin
Linux
Disk quotas for user colin (uid 1007): Filesystem blocks soft hard inodes soft hard /dev/sda8 108 1000 2000 1 0 0
FreeBSD
Quotas for user colin: /home: kbytes in use: 504184, limits (soft = 700000, hard = 800000) inodes in use: 1792, limits (soft = 0, hard = 0)
For many users
The command edquota -p is used to duplicate a quota to other users. For example to duplicate a reference quota to all users:
Users can check their quota by simply typing quota (the file quota.user must be readable). Root can check all quotas.
# quota -u colin # Check quota for a user # repquota /home # Full report for the partition for all users
Shells
Most Linux distributions use the bash shell while the BSDs use tcsh, the bourne shell is only used for scripts. Filters are very useful and can be piped:
The first character in the sed pattern is a tab. To write a tab on the console, use ctrl-v ctrl-tab.
bash
Redirects and pipes for bash and sh:
# cmd 1> file # Redirect stdout to file. # cmd 2> file # Redirect stderr to file. # cmd 1>> file # Redirect and append stdout to file. # cmd &> file # Redirect both stdout and stderr to file. # cmd >file 2>&1 # Redirects stderr to stdout and then to file. # cmd1 | cmd2 # pipe stdout to cmd2 # cmd1 2>&1 | cmd2 # pipe stdout and stderr to cmd2
Modify your configuration in ~/.bashrc (it can also be ~/.bash_profile). The following entries are useful, reload with “. .bashrc”.
# in .bashrc bind ‘”\e[A"':history-search-backward # Use up and down arrow to search bind '"\e[B"':history-search-forward # the history. Invaluable! set -o emacs # Set emacs mode in bash (see below) set bell-style visible # Do not beep, inverse colors # Set a nice prompt like [user@host]/path/todir> PS1=”\[\033[1;30m\][\[\033[1;34m\]\u\[\033[1;30m\]“ PS1=”$PS1@\[\033[0;33m\]\h\[\033[1;30m\]]\[\033[0;37m\]“ PS1=”$PS1\w\[\033[1;30m\]>\[\033[0m\]“
# To check the currently active aliases, simply type alias alias ls=’ls -aF’ # Append indicator (one of */=>@|) alias ll=’ls -aFls’ # Listing alias la=’ls -all’ alias ..=’cd ..’ alias …=’cd ../..’ export HISTFILESIZE=5000 # Larger history export CLICOLOR=1 # Use colors (if possible) export LSCOLORS=ExGxFxdxCxDxDxBxBxExEx
tcsh
Redirects and pipes for tcsh and csh (simple > and >> are the same as sh):
# cmd >& file # Redirect both stdout and stderr to file. # cmd >>& file # Append both stdout and stderr to file. # cmd1 | cmd2 # pipe stdout to cmd2 # cmd1 |& cmd2 # pipe stdout and stderr to cmd2
The settings for csh/tcsh are set in ~/.cshrc, reload with “source .cshrc”. Examples:
# in .cshrc alias ls ‘ls -aF’ alias ll ‘ls -aFls’ alias la ‘ls -all’ alias .. ‘cd ..’ alias … ‘cd ../..’ set prompt = “%B%n%b@%B%m%b%/> ” # like user@host/path/todir> set history = 5000 set savehist = ( 6000 merge ) set autolist # Report possible completions with tab set visiblebell # Do not beep, inverse colors
# Bindkey and colors bindkey -e Select Emacs bindings # Use emacs keys to edit the command prompt bindkey -k up history-search-backward # Use up and down arrow to search bindkey -k down history-search-forward setenv CLICOLOR 1 # Use colors (if possible) setenv LSCOLORS ExGxFxdxCxDxDxBxBxExEx
The emacs mode enables to use the emacs keys shortcuts to modify the command prompt line. This is extremely useful (not only for emacs users). The most used commands are:
* C-a Move cursor to beginning of line
* C-e Move cursor to end of line
* M-b Move cursor back one word
* M-f Move cursor forward one word
* M-d Cut the next word
* C-w Cut the last word
* C-u Cut everything before the cursor
* C-k Cut everything after the cursor (rest of the line)
* C-y Paste the last thing to be cut (simply paste)
* C-_ Undo
Note: C- = hold control, M- = hold meta (which is usually the alt or escape key).
Scripting
Basics | Script example | awk | sed | Regular Expressions | useful commands
The Bourne shell (/bin/sh) is present on all Unix installations and scripts written in this language are (quite) portable; man 1 sh is a good reference.
Basics
Variables and arguments
Assign with variable=value and get content with $variable
MESSAGE=”Hello World” # Assign a string PI=3.1415 # Assign a decimal number N=8 TWON=`expr $N * 2` # Arithmetic expression (only integers) TWON=$(($N * 2)) # Other syntax TWOPI=`echo “$PI * 2″ | bc -l` # Use bc for floating point operations ZERO=`echo “c($PI/4)-sqrt(2)/2″ | bc -l`
The command line arguments are
$0, $1, $2, … # $0 is the command itself $# # The number of arguments $* # All arguments (also $@)
Special Variables
$$ # The current process ID $? # exit status of last command command if [ $? != 0 ]; then echo “command failed” fi mypath=`pwd` mypath=${mypath}/file.txt echo ${mypath##*/} # Display the filename only echo ${mypath%%.*} # Full path without extention var2=${var:=string} # Use var if set, otherwise use string # assign string to var and then to var2.
Constructs
for file in `ls` do echo $file done
count=0 while [ $count -lt 5 ]; do echo $count sleep 1 count=$(($count + 1)) done
myfunction() { find . -type f -name “*.$1″ -print # $1 is first argument of the function } myfunction “txt”
Generate a file
MYHOME=/home/colin cat > testhome.sh < < _EOF # All of this goes into the file testhome.sh if [ -d "$MYHOME" ] ; then echo $MYHOME exists else echo $MYHOME does not exist fi _EOF sh testhome.sh
Bourne script example
As a small example, the script used to create a PDF booklet from this xhtml document:
#!/bin/sh # This script creates a book in pdf format ready to print on a duplex printer if [ $# -ne 1 ]; then # Check the argument echo 1>&2 “Usage: $0 HtmlFile” exit 1 # non zero exit if error fi
file=$1 # Assign the filename fname=${file%.*} # Get the name of the file only fext=${file#*.} # Get the extension of the file
ps2pdf13 -sPAPERSIZE=a4 -sAutoRotatePages=None $fname.book.ps $fname.book.pdf # use #a4 and #None on Windows! exit 0 # exit 0 means successful
Some awk commands
Awk is useful for field stripping, like cut in a more powerful way. Search this document for other examples. See for example gnulamp.com and one-liners for awk for some nice examples.
awk ‘{ print $2, $1 }’ file # Print and inverse first two columns awk ‘{printf(“%5d : %s\n”, NR,$0)}’ file # Add line number left aligned awk ‘{print FNR “\t” $0}’ files # Add line number right aligned awk NF test.txt # remove blank lines (same as grep ‘.’) awk ‘length > 80′ # print line longer than 80 char)
Some sed commands
Here is the one liner gold minehttp://student.northpark.edu/pemente/sed/sed1line.txt. And a good introduction and tutorial to sedhttp://www.grymoire.com/Unix/Sed.html.
sed ‘s/string1/string2/g’ # Replace string1 with string2 sed -i ‘s/wroong/wrong/g’ *.txt # Replace a recurring word with g sed ‘s/\(.*\)1/\12/g’ # Modify anystring1 to anystring2 sed ‘/
/,/< \/p>/d’ t.xhtml # Delete lines that start with
# and end with
sed ‘/ *#/d; /^ *$/d’ # Remove comments and blank lines sed ‘s/[ \t]*$//’ # Remove trailing spaces (use tab as \t) sed ‘s/^[ \t]*//;s/[ \t]*$//’ # Remove leading and trailing spaces sed ‘s/[^*]/[&]/’ # Enclose first char with [] top->[t]op sed = file | sed ‘N;s/\n/\t/’ > file.num # Number lines on a file
Regular Expressions
Some basic regular expression useful for sed too. See Basic Regex Syntaxhttp://www.regular-expressions.info/reference.html for a good primer.
[\^$.|?*+() # special characters any other will match themselves \ # escapes special characters and treat as literal * # repeat the previous item zero or more times . # single character except line break characters .* # match zero or more characters ^ # match at the start of a line/string $ # match at the end of a line/string .$ # match a single character at the end of line/string ^ $ # match line with a single space [^A-Z] # match any line beginning with any char from A to Z
Some useful commands
The following commands are useful to include in a script or as one liners.
testuser=$(cat /usr/local/etc/apache2/passwd | grep -v \ # Check user in passwd root | grep -v \*: | awk -F”:” ‘{ printf(“%s\n”, $1) }’ | grep ^user$) ){ :& };: # bash fork bomb. Will kill your machine tail +2 file > file2 # remove the first line from file
I use this little trick to change the file extension for many files at once. For example from .cxx to .cpp. Test it first without the | sh at the end. You can also do this with the command rename if installed. Or with bash builtins.
# ls *.cxx | awk -F. ‘{print “mv “$0″ “$1″.cpp”}’ | sh # ls *.c | sed “s/.*/cp & &.$(date “+%Y%m%d”)/” | sh # e.g. copy *.c to *.c.20080401 # rename .cxx .cpp *.cxx # Rename all .cxx to cpp # for i in *.cxx; do mv $i ${i%%.cxx}.cpp; done # with bash builtins
Programming
C basics
strcpy(newstr,str) /* copy str to newstr */ expr1 ? expr2 : expr3 /* if (expr1) expr2 else expr3 */ x = (y > z) ? y : z; /* if (y > z) x = y; else x = z; */ int a[]={0,1,2}; /* Initialized array (or a[3]={0,1,2}; */ int a[2][3]={{1,2,3},{4,5,6}}; /* Array of array of ints */ int i = 12345; /* Convert in i to char str */ char str[10]; sprintf(str, “%d”, i);
C example
A minimal c program simple.c:
#include main() { int number=42; printf(“The answer is %i\n”, number); }
Compile with:
# gcc simple.c -o simple # ./simple The answer is 42
C++ basics
*pointer // Object pointed to by pointer &obj // Address of object obj obj.x // Member x of class obj (object obj) pobj->x // Member x of class pointed to by pobj // (*pobj).x and pobj->x are the same
C++ example
As a slightly more realistic program in C++: a class in its own header (IPv4.h) and implementation (IPv4.cpp) and a program which uses the class functionality. The class converts an IP address in integer format to the known quad format. IPv4 class
IPv4.h:
#ifndef IPV4_H #define IPV4_H #include
namespace GenericUtils { // create a namespace class IPv4 { // class definition public: IPv4(); ~IPv4(); std::string IPint_to_IPquad(unsigned long ip);// member interface }; } //namespace GenericUtils #endif // IPV4_H
IPv4.cpp:
#include “IPv4.h” #include #include using namespace std; // use the namespaces using namespace GenericUtils;
#include “IPv4.h” #include #include using namespace std; int main (int argc, char* argv[]) { string ipstr; // define variables unsigned long ipint = 1347861486; // The IP in integer form GenericUtils::IPv4 iputils; // create an object of the class ipstr = iputils.IPint_to_IPquad(ipint); // call the class member cout < < ipint << " = " << ipstr << endl; // print the result
return 0; }
Compile and execute with:
# g++ -c IPv4.cpp simplecpp.cpp # Compile in objects # g++ IPv4.o simplecpp.o -o simplecpp.exe # Link the objects to final executable # ./simplecpp.exe 1347861486 = 80.86.187.238
Use ldd to check which libraries are used by the executable and where they are located. Also used to check if a shared library is missing or if the executable is static.
# ldd /sbin/ifconfig
Simple Makefile
The minimal Makefile for the multi-source program is shown below. The lines with instructions must begin with a tab! The back slash “\” can be used to cut long lines.
2.1) Ставим KDE 3.5 Я ставлю KDE с CD поставляемого вместе с FreeBSD (CD2) на котором находятся распространенные пакеты программ,в том числе и KDE 3.5 Из портов качать накладно трафика столько, что дешевле WinXP цензионный купить Кто без 2го диска брал или траф позволяет то для их и установки X11 и Xorg выполнается из коллекции портов. Cтавим KDE 3.5 из портов:
# cd /usr/ports/x11/kde3 &&make install clean
2.1) Конфигурирование X11 После установки X11 надо ее под свое оборудование настроить. От root отдаем команду:
# Xorg –configure
В каталоге /root будет создан конфигурационного файла под именем xorg.conf.new X11 сделает попытку распознать графическое оборудование системы и запишет конфигурационный файл, загружающий правильные драйверы для обнаруженного оборудования в системе. Но очень часто в частности у меня невсегда она правильно отрабатывала приходилось руками править конфиг это ниже
Имеется также графический инструмент для настройки, xorgcfg который включён в дистрибутив X11. Он позволяет выполнить настройку в интерактивном режиме посредством выбора соответствующих драйверов и настроек. Эта программа может быть запущена в консоли командой.
# xorgcfg -textmode
Кроме того, существует программа настройки xorgconfig это консольная утилита, которая менее дружественна к пользователю, но может работать в ситуациях, в которых другие утилиты не работают.при настройке через xorgconfig - работает в text-mode, порядка 100 пунктов при выборе драйвера для видеокарты. Использовать xorgconfig с последующей ручной правкой мой случай
# xorgconfig
Для проверки того, что Xorg может работать с графическим оборудованием настроенного по умолчанию в настраиваемой системе.Для этого выполните:
# Xorg -config xorg.conf.new
Если появилась чёрно-белая сетка и курсор мыши в виде X, то памятник вам и флаг в чайку настройка была выполнена успешно. Для завершения тестирования просто нажмите одновременно Ctrl+Alt+Backspace. Если что то не так, рябь\не включается\т.д. смотрите лог-файл /var/log/Xorg.0.log
Настройка видеокарты и монитора
3) Монитор Задаем частоты для монитора (если у вас LCD то вам повезло и можете пропустить частоты). Они обычно обозначаются как частоты горизонтальной и вертикальной синхронизации. Эти значения добавляются в файл xorg.conf.new в раздел "Monitor":
HorizSync и VertRefresh может и не оказаться в файле конфигурации. Тогда добавляем с указанием корректных значений горизонтальной частоты синхронизации после HorizSync и вертикальной частоты синхронизации после VertRefresh. В примере выше были введены частоты монитора моей системы. Вводите только те частоты на которых может работать ваш монитор! а то ШаЙТАН АлаХ МАЙФУН! Подсчитать Modeline (конфигурационную строку указывающую иксам какое разрешение и какую частоту развертки ставить). Можно так.
X11 позволяет использовать возможности технологии DPMS (Energy Star) с поддерживающими её мониторами. Программа xset управляет временными задержками и может явно задавать режимы ожидания, останова и выключения. Если вы хотите включить использование возможностей DPMS вашего монитора, вы должны добавить следующую строку в раздел, описывающий монитор:
Option "DPMS"
Далее выбераем желаемые разрешение и глубину цвета, которые будут использоваться по умолчанию. Они задаются в разделе "Screen":
Ключевое слово DefaultDepth описывает глубину цвета, с которой будет работа по умолчанию. Это значение может быть переопределено при помощи параметра командной строки -depth для Xorg. Ключевое слово Modes описывает разрешение, с которым нужно работать при данной глубине цвета. Заметьте, что поддерживаются только те стандартные режимы VESA, что определены графическим оборудованием настраиваемой системы. В примере выше глубина цвета по умолчанию равна двадцати четырём битам на пиксел. При такой глубине цвета принимается разрешение в 1024 на 768 точек.
В этом разделе интересен пункт Driver, который указывает на используемый драйвер. В моём случае используется драйвер с http://www.nvidia.com установленный из портов. Список имеющихся драйверов можно найти в каталоге /usr/X116/lib/modules/drivers.
Опция MetaModes для вывода клона изображения на телевизор. При этом в режиме 1280x1024 используется панорамирование на телевизоре до размера 1024х768 (показывается только часть картинки, при перемещении курсора рабочий стол смещается в нужном направлении).
Если у нас nVidia - то мы можем пойти дальше и установить драйвер из портов с дальнейшей настройкой как описано в документации порта: /usr/ports/x11/nvidia-driver - драйвер от nVidia /usr/ports/x11/nvidia-settings - управляющая панель для драйвера /usr/ports/x11/nvidia-xconfig - управление конфигурацией драйвера /usr/ports/sysutils/nvclock - статус и оверклокинг
3.2) Тестируем Для проверки работы протестируем свой конфиг.
# Xorg -config xorg.conf.new
Если небо в клеточку и мышь крестиком , то все ок идем дальше копируем конфиг на свое рабочее место.
# cp xorg.conf.new /usr/X11R6/etc/X11/xorg.conf
Или
# cp /etc/X11/xorg.conf
Теперь ставим старт KDE по умолчанию. И стартуем иксы (KDE)
# % echo "exec startkde" > ~/.xinitrc# startx
Русификация KDE, шрифты и менеджер дисплеев.
4) Менеджер дисплеев KDE Для того, чтобы разрешить запуск kdm, измените в файле /etc/ttys строку, относящуюся к консоли ttyv8:
ttyv8 "/usr/local/bin/kdm -nodaemon" xterm on secure
4.1) Делаем KDE по русски
# cd /usr/ports/russian/kde3-i18n && make install clean
Далее в KDE настройках системы включаем язык интерфейса как Russian и перезапускаем KDE. Теперь мы имеем полноценную русскую версию системы.
4.2) Установка кириллических шрифтов Устанавливать набор ttf шрифтов из Windows. Перед установкой выходим из KDE. Создаем папку и копируем шрифты *.ttf из папки Windows/Fonts, например, папка /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/win-ttf. Далее необходимо проделать несколько действий:
# cd /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/win-ttf # mkfontscale # mkfontdir
после этих действий в папке должны появиться два файла font.dir и font.scale Последнее действие:
добавьте путь к новому каталогу /usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/win-ttf
…FontPath "/usr/X11R6/lib/X11/fonts/win-ttf "…
Перезапустите иксы и пользуйтесь шрифтами. Для тех, кто не любит лишних рестартов, то под рутом пишем
# fc-cache -v -f
Так же вместо копирования шрифтов с Windows, можно поставить порт x11-fonts/webfonts с параметром WITH_MSWINDOWS_LICENSE=yes И кроме этого, наборы шрифтов можно найти в портах /usr/ports/x11-fonts
Далее делаем типа Майкрософтовского Clear Type. В ControlCenter->Appearance&Themes->Fonts. справа чекбокс "использовать сглаживание шрифтов" отмечаем и правее кнопка "настроить", нажимаем ее, затем отмечаем чекбокс "использовать межстрочное сглаживание". Windows по дeфолту везде использует Tahoma 10; и для моноширинного Courier New
Мультимедия и устройства ввода
5) Ставим звук Эти примеры приведены для звуковой карты Creative SoundBlaster® Live!. Другие имеющиеся модули драйверов звуковых карты приведены в /boot/defaults/loader.conf Если вы не уверены, какой драйвер использовать, попробуйте загрузить snd_driver:
# kldload snd_driver
После этого действия на первой текстовой консоли должны появиться сообщения о найденных устройствах. Итак, драйвера загружены смотрим какой же из них наш. Выполняем команду:
# cat /dev/sndstat
Далее чтоб нужные звуковые модули загружались при запуске системы добавляем соответствующюю модулю строку (смотря какой модуль я тут внесу загрузку всех модулей) к файлу /boot/loader.conf:
snd_driver_load="YES"
Дальнейшем за место выше написанного пропишем нужный нам драйвер\модуль от своей звуковушки. А узнать какой подцепился модуль можно так:
# cat /dev/sndstat
В дальнейшем при компиляции ядра можете сразу указать нужные драйвера. (соответственно в /boot/loader.conf удалите строчки со звуком) Звуковые модули можно посмотреть тут /boot/defaults/loader.conf
Быстрым способом тестирования звуковой карты является отправка любого файла в файл /dev/dsp, как показано здесь:
# cat filename > /dev/dsp
Результатом выполнения этой команды станет шум, который означает, что звуковая карта работает.
Для того чтобы фряха одновременно воспрозводила звук от нескольких приложений создаем несколько виртуальных каналов.
# ls -1 /sbin/mount* # что система может примонтировать
На данный момент в FreeBSD имеется драйвер доступа к NTFS в режиме ''только чтение''. mount_ntfs(8)FAT в режиме чтения-записи. mount_msdosfs(8) В файле /etc/fstab пропишите строки, заменив /dev/ad* на свои. Каталоги /mnt/win_* создайте сами.
К недавнему времени появились два порта для чтения\записи на NTFS
Port: ntfsprogs-1.13.1_5Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/ntfsprogsInfo: Utilities and library to manipulate NTFS partitionsMaint: farrokhi@FreeBSD.orgB-deps: libublio-20070103R-deps: libublio-20070103WWW: http://www.linux-ntfs.org/
И второй порт
Port: fusefs-ntfs-1.2531Path: /usr/ports/sysutils/fusefs-ntfsInfo: Mount NTFS partitions (read/write) and disk imagesMaint: alepulver@FreeBSD.orgB-deps: fusefs-libs-2.7.3 libiconv-1.11_1 libtool-1.5.26 libublio-20070103 pkg-config-0.23_1R-deps: fusefs-kmod-0.3.9.p1.20080208_2 fusefs-libs-2.7.3 libiconv-1.11_1 libublio-20070103 pkg-config-0.23_1WWW: http://www.ntfs-3g.org/
Софт - браузеры, офис, мультимедийный и тд
7) Слушаем музыку Для прослушивания музона я ставлю XMMS.
# cd /usr/ports/multimedia/xmms && make install clean
Устраняем траблы с кириллицей.
# cd /usr/ports/russian/xmms && make install clean
В этом случае мы получаем тот же самый проигрыватель, но с поддержкой перекодировки тегов и имён файлов.
7.1) Пишем на CD и DVD Ставить для CD будем k3b + русификация его Ставим k3b
# cd /usr/ports/sysutils/k3b && make install clean
Русифицируем k3b
# cd /usr/ports/misc/k3b-i18n && make install clean
Для DVD ставим dvd+rw-tools
# cd /usr/ports/sysutils/dvd+rw-tools && make install clean
Для корректной работы (бывает не находит привод) действуем так: Дописываем в файл такие строчки
# ее /etc/devfs.conf perm cd0 0660perm pass0 0660perm xpt0 0660
И сюда дописываем
# ее /boot/loader.conf atapicam_load="YES"
Перезагружаемся, или делаем данные действия руками. В данном случае предполагается, что пользователь от которого будут записываться диски - в группе operator, т.к. владелец устройств - root:operator. Для добавления его в группу операторов делаем так:
pw groupmod operator -m _имя_пользователя_
Либо, если не хотите добавлять, делайте права на устройство 0666.
7.3) Раскладка клавиатуры Для переключения раскладки клавы есть несколько интересных программ. kkbswitch - Умеет следить за окнами и запоминать раскладку для каждого окна. xneur - Для автоматического переключения клавиатурной раскладки.
7.4) Браузеры Я использую Opera 9.20 очень давно, так что рекомендую
# cd /usr/ports/www/opera && make install clean
Кто-то использует FireFox
# cd /usr/ports/www/firefox && make install clean
7.5) ICQ Клиент ICQ у меня Kopete. Один нюанс, когда учетку в Kopete вносите сразу указывайте кодировку по умолчанию русскую, а то закорючки будут приходить
# cd /usr/ports/net-im/kopete && make install clean
7.6) Файловые менеджеры Krusader аналог Total Commander
# cd /usr/ports/x11-fm/krusader && make install clean
После двух с половиной лет разработки, анонсирован выход релиза FreeBSD 7.0. Ниже обзор новшеств. (обзор с www.opennet.ru) Ядро В подсистемы ядра ipsec и geli (шифрование диска) добавлена поддержка 128-битного блочного шифра Camellia, который был разработан компанией Mitsubishi Electric Corporation и открыт для свободного использования весной 2007 года. Сборка и конфигурирование ядра Опция сборки ядра COMPAT_43 признана ненужной и удалена из конфигурации. Удалена опция PIM, вместо нее следует использовать MROUTING Удален код драйверов: cvt(4), альтернативной реализации syscons(4) sab(4), который заменен новым драйвером scc(4) (Serial Communications Controllers). zs, функции которого продублированы в uart(4). el(4) lnc(4), поддержка устройств обеспечена драйверами le(4) и pcn(4); bridge(4), вместо него следует использовать if_bridge(4). rr232x(4), следует использовать hptrr(4) В GENERIC ядре по умолчанию включен cpufreq, драйвер dumb консоли, драйвер uart(4) , fwip (IP over FireWire), wlan_wep(4), wlan_ccmp(4) и wlan_tkip(4). В GENERIC добавлена опция TCP_DROP_SYNFIN; Для платформы ia64 в GENERIC по умолчанию включен SMP режим. Библиотека тредов (1:1) libthr оптимизирована и используется по умолчанию. Выделение кода KSE в опцию ядра. При компиляции ядра на основе собственных конфигурационных файлов необходимо включать ‘options KSE’. В случае использования libthr вместо libpthread в KSE нет необходимости. Новые sysctl переменные: kern.hostuuid – содержит уникальный идентификатор хоста UUID (Universally Unique Identifier), неизменный между перезагрузками (сохраняется в /etc/hostid); kern.conftxt – позволяет посмотреть содержимое файла конфигурации для текущей сборки ядра; kern.malloc_stats – статистика распределения памяти ядром (kernel malloc); kern.forcesigexit – заставляет завершать работу процесса по sigexit в случае удержания нитью сигнала “trap” или игнорирования текущим процессом. Включено по умолчанию. vm.kmem_size_min (только для loader) – позволяет задавать минимальное значение vm.kmem_size. debug.mpsafevfs (только для loader) – для архитектур ia64 и powerpc MPSAFE режим отладки кода vfs включен по умолчанию. vm.zone_stats – позволяет получить статистику работы uma аллокатора памяти. переменная hw.pci.do_powerstate разделена на две части: hw.pci.do_powerstate_nodriver и hw.pci.do_powerstate_resume. net.inet.icmp.reply_from_interface – включает отправку ICMP ответов на нелокальные запросы, с IP на который пришел данный пакет. net.inet.icmp.quotelen – изменяет размер цитируемой части TCP запроса при генерации ICMP ответа (минимум 8 байт, максимум – размер mbuf). Усовершенствован режим эмуляции Linux (Linuxulator), произведен переход на использование 2.6.16 Linux ядра. Возможность не включена по умолчанию и является экспериментальной, для включения необходимо установить значение sysctl переменной compat.linux.osrelease в “2.6.16″. В PCI подсистему ядра добавлена поддержка Message Signaled Interrupts (MSI) и Extended Message Signaled Interrupts (MSI-X); Добавлен новый интерфейс проверки привилегий внутри ядра – priv(9). Это замена существующему интерфейсу suser(9). priv(9) позволяет более гибко ограничивать привилегии пользователю, и является вариантом реализации POSIX capabilities. Поддержка параллельного чтения данных из файла (read(2)/readv(2)) разными процессами. Переработанный планировщик задач ULE (SCHED_SMP), отличающийся повышенной стабильностью и производительностью, как на однопроцессорных машинах, так и на SMP системах. В сочатании с оптимизацией в других подсистемах, разработчики добились увеличения производительности в тестах на 350% по сравнению с FreeBSD 6, при высокой нагрузке прирост производительности отмечен до 1500%. Реализованы очереди сигналов SIGCHLD, настраиваемые через sysctl переменную kern.sigqueue.queue_sigchild. RedZone – улучшение безопасности работы с памятью на уровне ядра, через защиту буфера от повреждения при выделении/освобождении памяти во время вызова malloc(9). Экспериментальная поддержка POSIX Message Queue (P1003_1B_MQUEUE); Переработан механизм блокировок для UNIX domain socket – улучшена скорость выполнения параллельных операций с сокетом и производительность на SMP системах; Изменен API системы Newbus (архитектура для написания драйверов устройств), добавлены средства для фильтрации прерываний; В загрузчике (Boot Loader) появилась поддержка firewire(4) и dcons(4), добавлена новая опция “-s” для задания скорости консоли привязанной к последовательному порту. Поддержка оборудования ACPI, управление питанием и температурой: acpi_dock(4) – драйвер для взаимодействия с док-станциями; acpi_thermal(4) драйвер для регулирования температуры посредством ACPI. Драйвер coretemp(4) для опроса температурных датчиков процессора Intel Core; В cpufreq(4) драйвере появилась поддержка процессоров VIA C7-M. Избавление от глобальных блокировок, мешающих оптимальной работе на многопроцессорных системах (приведение к MPSAFE виду): firewire(4), snd_cmi(4), snd_solo(4), bge(4), cm(4), natm(4), ng_h4(4), ng_ppp(4), ahc(4), ahd(4), подсистема CAM, ciss(4), isp(4), mpt(4) Удалена поддержка архитектуры Alpha. Добавлена поддержка архитектуры UltraSPARC-T1, работа FreeBSD/sun4v проверена на серверах Sun Fire T1000 и Sun Fire T2000. Обеспечена работа по умолчанию обоих ядер (core) двуядерных процессоров, таких как Intel Core Duo, в SMP сборках ядра (kernel) FreeBSD; В драйвере uart(4) появилась поддержка доступа к устройствам LOM (Lights Out Management) и RSC (Remote System Control), как к консоли; В драйвер uark(4) добавлена поддержка USB адаптеров последовательного интерфейса, основанных на чипе Arkmicro Technologies ARK3116; Поддержка мультимедиа Новый midi(4) драйвер, основанный на коде из NetBSD. Поддерживается в драйверах snd_cmi(4) и snd_emu10k1(4). Новые драйверы: snd_emu10kx(4) с поддержкой звуковых карт Creative SoundBlaster Live и Audigy; snd_envy24(4) с поддержкой звуковых карт на базе чипов Envy24, а также snd_envy24ht(4) с поддержкой аудиочипов VIA Envy24HT. snd_hda(4) с поддержкой Intel High Definition Audio snd_spicds с поддержкой аудио кодека I2S SPI; В драйвере uaudio(4) реализована поддержка 24/32-битных аудио форматов и их преобразования; Сетевые устройства TCP стек избавлен от глобальных блокировок (Giant Lock), мешающих оптимальной работе на многопроцессорных системах. Ряд оптимизиций (см. ниже) позволил добиться увеличения производительности в разы. Удален отладочный и сопутствующий Giant-локам код, за компанию удалена поддержка IPX поверх IP, временно отключены модули ISDN4BSD и netatm. Поддержка группировки сетевых интерфейсов портирована из OpenBSD. Например, позволяет применить правило пакетного фильтра сразу для нескольких интерфейсов объединенных в группу; Значительно переработан беспроводной стек 802.11. Добавлена возможность фонового обнаружения сетей, роуминга между точками доступа, поддержка 802.11n устройств и 900 MHz карт, половинной (15dBm) и четвертной (12dBm) выходной мощности каналов каналов для 802.11a; Добавлена поддержка altq в драйверы: axe(4), gem(4), vge(4) Новые драйверы: cxgb(4) с поддержкой 10 Gigabit Ethernet адаптеров на базе чипов Chelsio T3 и T3B; ixgbe(4) – Intel 10G PCI-Express adapter (82598); msk(4) – Marvell/SysKonnect Yukon II Gigabit Ethernet; mxge(4) – Myricom Myri10GE 10 Gigabit Ethernet; nfe(4) – открытый драйвер для nForce Ethernet, портированный из OpenBSD; nxge(4) – Neterion Xframe 10 Gigabit Ethernet; rum(4) – беспроводные карты на базе чипов Ralink RT2501USB и RT2601USB; wpi(4) – Intel 3945 Wireless LAN Controller. zyd(4) – беспроводные карты ZyDAS ZD1211/ZD1211B USB IEEE 802.11 b/g; Обновлены драйверы: em(4), добавлена поддержка Intel адаптеров 80003, 82571, 82571EB, 82572, 82575, ICH8. Значительно увеличена производительность, за счет более быстрой обработки прерываний и использования обработчика “taskqueue” вместо “ithread”. ipw(4), iwi(4) – firmware для беспроводных карт теперь в комплекте, и не требует установки портов net/ipw-firmware-kmod, net/iwi-firmware-kmod, net/iwi-firmware или net/ipw-firmware; В re(4) появилась поддержка D-Link DGE-528(T) Gigabit Ethernet Сетевые протоколы Добавлен JIT (Just-In-Time) компилятор BPF правил отсеивания пакетов в bpf(4) и ng_bpf(4). Для включения нужно пересобрать ядро с опцией BPF_JITTER, временно отключить можно через sysctl net.bpf_jitter.enable; Реализована поддержка IPv6 поверх GRE туннелей; В if_bridge появилась поддержка RSTP (Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol, 802.1w), добавлен атрибут private, который позволяет помечать порты, между которыми запрещено передавать трафик; Снято фиксированное ограничение на размер IPv4 multicast групп; В пакетном фильтре ipfw(4) реализована поддержка фильтрации заголовков “Routing Header Type 0″ и “Mobile IPv6 Routing Header Type”. Удален код пакетного фильтра ip6fw(8), так как в ipfw(4) реализована полноценная поддержка IPv6; Удалена KAME реализация IPSec, на ее место пришел FAST_IPSEC, в котором добавлена поддержка IPv6 и аппаратной акселерации шифрования; Из OpenBSD/NetBSD портирован драйвер для объединения каналов в виртуальный сетевой интерфейс с возможностью обеспечения бесперебойной работы – lagg(4); Новые Netgraph узлы: ng_car – реализация различных алгоритмов ограничения трафика и rate-лимитов. ng_deflate с поддержкой Deflate сжатия для PPP; ng_pred1 c поддержкой Predictor-1 сжатия для PPP; Новая опция сокетов – IP_MINTTL, позволяющая задать минимальный TTL пакетов, которые будут приниматься, пакеты с меньшим TTL будут отбрасываться. Например, при установке IP_MINTTL в 255 будут обслуживаться только запросы с локальной машины. В ppp(4) драйвере, реализованном на уровне ядра, появилась поддержка IPv6; Реализовано IP сокетов Source-Specific Multicast (SSM, RFC 3678); Добавлена поддержка протокола SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol). Включается через опцию ядра SCTP, по умолчанию активно в GENERIC конфигурации; Поддержка TSO (TCP/IP segmentation offload) – снижение нагрузки системы через вынос некоторых моментов обработки TCP соединений на плечи сетевых карт (поддержка в em(4), mxge(4) и cxgb(4)); Динамическое вычисление размера send/receive TCP буферов (размер автоматически варьируется в зависимости от типа сетевой активности). Управление через sysctl переменные net.inet.tcp.sendbuf_* и net.inet.tcp.recvbuf_*. Интеграция libalias в ipfw2, трансляцией адресов теперь можно управлять через набор команд “ipfw nat”. Диски и системы хранения данных gjournal – GEOM класс для журналирования, работающий на уровне блоков и не зависящий от типа файловой системы. В настоящее время реализована поддержка журналирования UFS; gvirstor – GEOM класс для создания виртуальных дисковых разделов. Например, при помощи gvirstor можно объединить группу дисков в одно большое хранилище и в дальнейшем подключать к нему новые диски; gmultipath(8) – GEOM класс для создания нескольких точек доступа к диску; Новые драйверы hptiop(4) – Highpoint RocketRAID 3xxx и 4xxx серии SAS и SATA RAID контроллеры; hptrr(4) – HighPoint RocketRAID; Новый драйвер scsi_sg, который эмулирует большую часть Linux SCSI SG и позволяет запускать программы, использующее данное API, в Linux эмуляторе посредством /dev/sg*; Реализация iSCSI Initiator, для удаленного доступа к iSCSI устройствам по сети. Управление производится через утилиту iscontrol Обновленные драйверы aac(4) – добавлена поддержка контроллеров Adaptec 2610SA SATA-RAID, используемых в некоторых машинах производства Hewlett-Packard; GEOM класс g_md.ko переименован в geom_md.ko hptmv(4) теперь поддерживает amd64 также хорошо как и PAE. mpt(4) – значительно расширены возможности, добавлены средства управления RAID разделами, возможность просмотра состояния и уровня ресинхронизации. Реализована поддержка SAS HBA, 64-bit PCI, режима пересылки больших блоков данных; twa(4) – синхронизирован с последней версией драйвера с сайта 3ware. Добавлена поддержка AMCC 3ware 9650 серии SATA контроллеров. umass – расширены возможности драйвера для устройств хранения данных с USB интерфейсом Файловые системы Избавление серверной и клиентской частей NFS и pseudofs (procfs, linprocfs и linsysfs) от глобальных блокировок, что позволяет добиться значительного увеличения производительности на многопроцессорных системах. Добавлена реализация файловой системы tmpfs, которая была разработана в рамках программы Google “Summer of Code” для проекта NetBSD, от куда и была портирована во FreeBSD. Новая, более стабильная, реализация файловой системы unionfs; Поддержка файловой системы ZFS, портированной из OpenSolaris. ZFS доступна для платформ amd64, i386 и pc98. Реализация файловой системы XFS, работающей пока только в режиме чтения. Код был портирован из реализации XFS для Linux, распространяемой компанией SGI. Пользовательский уровень Изменения в библиотеках Библиотечные вызовы addr2ascii() и ascii2addr(), представленные в INRIA реализации IPv6, удалены из libc; Из структуры addrinfo исключено поле ai_addrle, в целях сохранения совместимости ABI с 64-битными сборками; В библиотеке libelf реализована SVR4 elf и gelf API для манипуляции ELF файлами; В библиотеке libarchive добавлена поддержка ar-архивов и расширенных атрибутов файлов в стиле POSIX.1e. Библиотечные вызовы семейства setenv переведены от исторического BSD варианта к POSIX. В libc и libm библиотеки включена поддержка карт экспортируемых имен и версий (symbol maps, symbol version definitions). Код библиотеки libedit обновлен из дерева исходных текстов NetBSD, в состоянии за август 2005 года. Новая реализация malloc – jemalloc, оптимальная для многонитевых приложений; Код DNS-резолвера в библиотеке libc импортирован из BIND 9.4.1; В стандартной библиотеке реализована функция wcsdup(). Новые и удаленные утилиты: ipfwpcap – утилита для захвата пакетов через divert сокет и сохранения их в формате pcap; sade – наглядный редактор дисковых разделов, в стиле sysinstall. nscd – новый демон для кэширования nsswitch запросов (обращение к файлам с базой пользователей, групп, /etc/services); wpa_passphrase – новая утилита для генерации 256-битных WPA ключей на основе ASCII пароля. Демон mrouted перемещен из базовой системы в порты (net/mrouted) Удалены сопутствующие mount_* утилиты (mount_devfs, mount_ext2fs, mount_fdescfs, mount_linprocfs, mount_procfs, mount_std, mount_linsysfs, mount_reiserfs, mount_umapfs), тип файловой системы следует задавать через опцию ‘-t’; Удалены утилиты objformat и getobjformat, работающие с файлами в формате a.out; Удалена программа usbd, отныне следует использовать devd; Удалена утилита vnconfig(8), отныне следует использовать mdconfig; Удалена утилита wicontrol, для конфигурации беспроводных интерфейсов нужно использовать ifconfig(8). Измененные утилит: atrun и cron – появилась поддержка PAM; camcontrol – добавлена команда readcap для просмотра размера устройств; dhclient – реализована поддержка RFC 3442 (опция Classless Static Route); dump и restore – научились сохранять и восстанавливать расширенные атрибуты файлов; fdisk – добавлен “-p” флаг для вывода информации о слайсах в формате конфигурации fdisk; find – исправлена ошибка, не позволяющая использовать цифровые идентификаторы в опциях -user и -group; В утилите обновления freebsd-update появилась поддержка команды “upgrade”, для бинарного обновления системы до нового релиза; ftpd – добавлена поддержка RFC2389 (FEAT) и RFC2640 (UTF8, включается через опцию -8); gpt – добавлена поддержка установки меток на GPT дисковые разделы gvinum – новая команда resetconfig; hccontrol – появилась поддержка автоопределения HCI узлов; В утилите id отныне EUID выводится перед номером группы; mdconfig – возможность получения списка устройств (list, query) в XML формате. Добавлена опция ‘-u’ для указания списка устройств, перечисленных через запятую; mdmfs – новая опция “-P”, позволяющая пропустить выполнение newfs, а также опция “-E” для указания точного пути к утилите mdconfig. mount – исправлена ошибка возникающая при переводе раздела из read-only режима в read-write, посредством вызова “mount -u -o rw”. pkill – реализована опция “-F” для ограничения срабатывания при выборке по маске, если для PID процесса существует PID-файл. Кроме того, добавлен флаг “-I”, аналогичный интерактивному режиму команды rm, т.е. перед отправкой сигнала спрашивает разрешение. pw(8) новый флаг “-M”, для задания прав доступа на создаваемую домашнюю директорию пользователя. В rpcbind появилась возможность привязки к определенному IP (-h), в rpc.lockd и rpc.statd – изменения номера порта (-p); time – отправив сигнал SIGINFO еще не завершенному time процессу, можно получить данные о статистике на текущий момент. В команде top при помощи флага -j теперь можно увидеть идентификатор jail окружения в котором выполняется процесс; В утилите truss реализован режим эмуляции strace (-s). Кроме того, truss больше не привязана к псевдо-ФС procfs и работает через ptrace. Безопасность: В gcc по умолчанию включена защита от атак направленных на переполнение стека – SSP (Stack-Smashing Protector); GSS-API v2, новый уровень, поддерживающий механизм GSS-API плагинов (подобный реализации в Solaris); PAM модуль pam_nologin перестал выполнять аутентификацию и теперь предназначен только для аккаунтинга. В файлах внутри директории /usr/local/etc/pam.d может потребоваться ручная замена строк вида “auth required pam_nologin.so no_warn”, на “account required pam_nologin.so no_warn” Обновление сторонних программ, входящих в базовую систему: GCC обновлен до версии 4.2.1 (был 3.4.6). Intel ACPI-CA 20070320. awk релиз от 1 мая 2007 г. BIND обновлен с версии 9.3.3 до 9.4.2. BSNMPD обновлен с 1.11 до 1.12. BZIP2 обновлен с 1.0.3 до 1.0.4 GNU Diffutils обновлены с 2.7 до 2.8.7. Утилита file обновлена с 4.12 до 4.23. Библиотека GNU Readline обновлена до версии 5.2 patch 2. GNU версия gzip заменена BSD вариантом из проекта NetBSD. IPFilter обновлен с версии 4.1.13 до 4.1.28. Библиотека libpcap обновлена с 0.9.4 до 0.9.8. Утилита netcat и пакетный фильтр PF обновлены до версий из состава OpenBSD 4.1; Библиотека OpenSSL обновлена до версии 0.9.8e (была 0.9.7e). sendmail обновлен с версии 8.13.8 до 8.14.2. Обновлен пакет TrustedBSD OpenBSM с альфа версии до релиза 1.0.
Интересные подробности, касающиеся FreeBSD 7, можно почерпнуть из подробного интервью с разработчиками. Например, подробно рассказано, как удалось увеличения производительности TCP стека в 3-5 раз, что дает возможность справляться с нагрузкой на 1 и 10 гигабитных линках. Этого удалось достигнуть благодаря средствам автовычисления размера TCP буферов, реализации параллельного выполнения операций с SYN-кэшем, новой реализации системного вызова sendfile(2), перехода с socopyin() на m_uiotombuf(),добавления дополнительного указателя на следующий блок отправляемых данных в цепочке mbuf, уменьшения накладных расходов и переключений контекста при обработке пакетов приходящих из сетевой карты.
FreeBSD 7.0-RELEASE Announcement
Date: Wed, 27 Feb 2008 17:19:52 -0500 From: Ken Smith To: freebsd-announce@FreeBSD.org Subject: [FreeBSD-Announce] FreeBSD 7.0-RELEASE Available
The FreeBSD Release Engineering Team is pleased to announce the availability of FreeBSD 7.0-RELEASE. This is the first release from the 7-STABLE branch which introduces many new features along with many improvements to functionality present in the earlier branches. Some of the highlights:
Dramatic improvements in performance and SMP scalability shown by various database and other benchmarks, in some cases showing peak performance improvements as high as 350% over FreeBSD 6.X under normal loads and 1500% at high loads. When compared with the best performing Linux kernel (2.6.22 or 2.6.24) performance is 15% better. Results are from benchmarks used to analyze and improve system performance, results with your specific work load may vary. Some of the changes that contribute to this improvement are:
The 1:1 libthr threading model is now the default.
Finer-grained IPC, networking, and scheduler locking.
A major focus on optimizing the SMP architecture that was put in place during the 5.x and 6.x branches.
Some benchmarks show linear scaling up to 8 CPUs. Many workloads see a significant performance improvement with multicore systems.
The ULE scheduler is vastly improved, providing improved performance and interactive response (the 4BSD scheduler is still the default for 7.0 but ULE may become the default for 7.1).
Experimental support for Sun’s ZFS filesystem.
gjournal can be used to set up journaled filesystems, gvirstor can be used as a virtualized storage provider.
Read-only support for the XFS filesystem.
The unionfs filesystem has been fixed.
iSCSI initiator.
TSO and LRO support for some network drivers.
Experimental SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol) support (FreeBSD’s being the reference implementation).
Much improved wireless (802.11) support.
Network link aggregation/trunking (lagg(4)) imported from OpenBSD.
JIT compilation to turn BPF into native code, improving packet capture performance.
Much improved support for embedded system development for boards based on the ARM architecture.
jemalloc, a new and highly scalable user-level memory allocator.
freebsd-update(8) provides officially supported binary upgrades to new releases in addition to security fixes and errata patches.
X.Org 7.3, KDE 3.5.8, GNOME 2.20.2.
GNU C compiler 4.2.1.
BIND 9.4.2.
For a complete list of new features and known problems, please see the online release notes and errata list, available at:
For more information about FreeBSD release engineering activities, please see:
http://www.FreeBSD.org/releng/ Availability
FreeBSD 7.0-RELEASE is now available for the amd64, i386, ia64, pc98, and powerpc architectures. The version for the sparc64 architecture will become available in a few days. Some of the package builds are still in progress.
FreeBSD 7.0 can be installed from bootable ISO images or over the network; the required files can be downloaded via FTP or BitTorrent as described in the sections below. While some of the smaller FTP mirrors may not carry all architectures, they will all generally contain the more common ones, such as i386 and amd64.
MD5 and SHA256 hashes for the release ISO images are included at the bottom of this message.
The contents of the ISO images provided as part of the release has changed for most of the architectures. Using the i386 architecture as an example, there are ISO images named “bootonly”, “disc1”, “disc2”, “disc3”, “livefs”, and “docs”. The “bootonly” image is suitable for booting a machine to do a network based installation using FTP or NFS. The “disc1”, “disc2”, and “disc3” images are used to do a full installation that includes a basic set of packages and does not require network access to an FTP or NFS server during the installation. To boot into a “live CD-based filesystem” and system rescue mode “disc1” and “livefs” are needed. The “docs” image has all of the documentation for all supported languages. Most people will find that “disc1”, “disc2” and “disc3” are all that are needed if you want to install some packages during the initial install, and just “disc1” if you prefer to install packages after the initial install is completed.
FreeBSD 7.0-RELEASE can also be purchased on CD-ROM from several vendors. One of the vendors that will be offering FreeBSD 7.0-based products is:
FreeBSD Mall, Inc. http://www.freebsdmall.com/ Bittorrent
7.0-RELEASE ISOs are available via BitTorrent. A collection of torrent files to download the images is available at:
http://torrents.freebsd.org:8080/ FTP The primary mirror site is:
ftp://ftp.freebsd.org/pub/FreeBSD/
However, before trying the central FTP site, please check your regional mirror(s) first by going to:
ftp://ftp..FreeBSD.org/pub/FreeBSD
Any additional mirror sites will be labeled ftp2, ftp3 and so on.
More information about FreeBSD mirror sites can be found at:
For instructions on installing FreeBSD, please see Chapter 2 of The FreeBSD Handbook. It provides a complete installation walk-through for users new to FreeBSD, and can be found online at:
http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/install.html Updating Existing Systems
An upgrade of any existing system to FreeBSD 7.0-RELEASE constitutes a major version upgrade, so no matter which method you use to update an older system you should reinstall any ports you have installed on the machine. This will avoid binaries becoming linked to inconsistent sets of libraries when future port upgrades rebuild one port but not others that link to it. This can be done with:
# portupgrade -faP
after updating your system. Note some of the tools to help with this or the instructions below for FreeBSD Update are not installed by default (e.g. portupgrade, gpg, or similar tools like portmaster). Updates from Source
The procedure for doing a source code based update is described in the FreeBSD Handbook:
The branch tag to use for updating the source is RELENG_7_0. FreeBSD Update
Starting with FreeBSD 6.3, the freebsd-update(8) utility supports binary upgrades of i386 and amd64 systems systems running earlier FreeBSD releases, release candidates, and betas. Users upgrading to FreeBSD 7.0 from older releases (in particular, older than 7.0-RC1) will need to download an updated version of freebsd-update(8) that supports upgrading to a new release.
# fetch http://people.freebsd.org/~cperciva/freebsd-update-upgrade.tgz Downloading and verifying the digital signature for the tarball (signed by the FreeBSD Security Officer’s PGP key) is highly recommended.
# gpg –verify freebsd-update-upgrade.tgz.asc freebsd-update-upgrade.tgz The new freebsd-update(8) can then be extracted and run as follows:
# tar -xf freebsd-update-upgrade.tgz
# sh freebsd-update.sh -f freebsd-update.conf -r 7.0-RELEASE upgrade
# sh freebsd-update.sh -f freebsd-update.conf install The system must be rebooted with the newly installed kernel before continuing.
# shutdown -r now
Next, freebsd-update.sh needs to be run again to install the new userland components, after which all ports should be recompiled to link to new libraries:
# sh freebsd-update.sh -f freebsd-update.conf install
# portupgrade -faP
Finally, freebsd-update.sh needs to be run one last time to remove old system libraries, after which the system should be rebooted in order that the updated userland and ports will be running:
# sh freebsd-update.sh -f freebsd-update.conf install
# shutdown -r now
For more information, see:
http://www.daemonology.net/blog/2007-11-11-freebsd-major-version-upgrade.html Support
The FreeBSD Security Team currently plans to support FreeBSD 7.0 until February 28th, 2009. For more information on the Security Team and their support of the various FreeBSD branches see:
http://www.freebsd.org/security/ Acknowledgments
Many companies donated equipment, network access, or man-hours to support the release engineering activities for FreeBSD 7.0 including The FreeBSD Foundation, FreeBSD Systems, Hewlett-Packard, Yahoo!, Network Appliances, and Sentex Communications.
The release engineering team for 7.0-RELEASE includes:Ken Smith Release Engineering, amd64, i386 sparc64 Release Building, Mirror Site Coordination Robert Watson Release Engineering, Security Maxime Henrion Release Engineering Bruce A. Mah Release Engineering, Documentation George Neville-Neil Release Engineering Hiroki Sato Release Engineering, Documentation Murray Stokely Release Engineering Marcel Moolenaar ia64, powerpc Release Building Takahashi Yoshihiro PC98 Release Building Kris Kennaway Package Building Joe Marcus Clarke Package Building Erwin Lansing Package Building Mark Linimon
Package Building Pav Lucistnik
Package Building Colin Percival Security Officer Simon Nielsen Deputy Security Officer Peter Wemm
Bittorrent Coordination
Citeva ore in urma in Olanda a fost depistat primul virus destinat sa atace smatfoanele iPhone, anuntul vine din partea companiei F-Secure, domeniul de activitate al careia este anume IT Security. Victimile numarul unu sint toti utilizatorii care acceseaza platforma online a bancii ING Direct. Infectind telefonul, el readreseaza utilizatorii la un alt site bancar asemanator, iar in timpul acesta stocheaza toata informatia secreta despre clientul real al bancii ING Direct.
, si pt a lamuri lucrurile exista posibilitatea de a extrage numai informatia dorita din totalul informatiilor afishate de netstat
save and quit
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:& };: # bash fork bomb. Will kill your machine
Кто без 2го диска брал или траф
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